ii« Ini  liii;  III  I 'II 


GIFT  OF 
H.B.Wilson 


s^.^-.<-.-«s'j 


Principles  of  Teaching 


BY 

NATHAN  A.  HARVEY 

PROFESSOR  OF  PEDAGOGY,  STATE  NORMAL  COLLEGE, 
YPSILANTI,   MICHIGAN 


CHICAGO 

ROW,  PETERSON  &  CO. 


L 


.    .  :epUCATION  DEPT. 


"•  <>><••         • 


Copyright,  1910 

BY 

ROW,  PETERSON  8c  CO 


PREFACE 

Some  men  need  to  apologize  for  living,  and  the 
preface  of  a  book  is  frequently  in  the  nature  of  an 
apology  for  its  existence,  \^'hethcr  a  book  needs  an 
apology  or  not.  it  is  sometimes  advantageous  to  a  reader 
to  know  the  author's  point  of  view,  and  what  he  expects 
the  book  to  accomplish. 

Of  the  five  hundred  thousand  teachers  in  the  United 
States,  about  one  hundred  thousand  are  teaching  their 
first  term  of  school  this  year.  Of  this  one  hundred  thou- 
sand, scarcely  more  than  ten  thousand  have  had  any 
professional  training,  or  have  given  to  the  subject  of 
teaching  any  serious  preliminary  thought  that  could  be 
called  professional  study.  The  professional  aspect  of  the 
work  must  be  presented  to  them  after  the  work  of  teach- 
ing has  been  entered  upon.  In  the  hope  that  it  may 
contribute  somewhat  to  the  realization  that  there  is  a 
professional  aspect  of  teaching,  and  a  body  of  educational 
doctrine  worth  while  for  a  teacher  to  know,  this  volume 
is  sent  forth. 

The  book  has  grown  out  of  the  attempt  to  give  to 
voung  persons  preparing  to  teach  the  largest  amount  of 
professional  knowledge  in  the  shortest  possible  time.  This 
necessarilv  involves  the  selection  of  somewhat  isolated 
topics,  rather  than  a  closely  integrated  body  of  educa- 
tional doctrine.     A  classification  of  the  chapters  in  the 

3 

677804 


4  PREFACE 

book  will  show  that  some  of  them  may  be  called  chapters 
in  the  Philosophy  of  Education ;  others  belong  to  the 
subject  of  Child  Study,  while  still  others  are  more 
properly  pedagogical,  or  devoted  to  the  Principles  of 
Teaching. 

Much  of  the  best  in  educational  doctrine  is  old,  going 
back  to  the  time  of  Locke  and  Comenius.  Some  of  it  is 
new,  the  result  of  recent  discussions  and  investigations. 
All  of  it,  old  and  nevv',  needs  to  be  worked  over,  from 
time  to  time,  and  reorganized  in  the  light  of  additional 
knowledge,  enlarged  ideals  of  life,  and  new  conceptions 
of  child  nature.  A  book  in  which  a  conscientious  attempt 
to  accomplish  such  a  reorganization  of  material  is  made, 
needs  no  apology  for  existence. 

It  will  be  found  that  much  emphasis  is  laid  upon  the 
reasons  that  justify  the  statements  of  educational  prin- 
ciples, and  the  practices  of  teaching.  We  must  search 
in  biology,  psychology  and  sociology  for  such  an  under- 
standing. Teaching  cannot  be  educational  without  being 
sociological.  It  cannot  be  sociological  without  being 
psychological.  It  cannot  be  psychological  without  at 
the  same  time  being  biological.  This  conception,  from 
which  alone  can  arise  a  science  of  education,  wall  account 
for  some  of  the  things  in  the  book  that  would  otherwise 
lack  interpretation. 

The  writer  has  not  hesitated  to  rely  upon  his  own 
investigations  and  an  experience  of  manv  years  in  all 
grades  of  school,  from  that  of  the  country  district  to 
the  university  and  the  normal  school,  even  when  his  con- 
clusions have  not  harmonized  completely  with  the  theories 
of  other  writers  upon  these  subjects.  The  attempt  has 
been  made  to  present  the  conclusions  in  an  understand- 
able  way  without   relying  upon   mystifying  and   mean- 


PRRFACE 


incrless  phrases,  or  inventing  new  terms  for  old  and 
well  understood  ideas.  Grateful  acknowledgement  for 
many  valuable  suggestions  is  made  to  Supt.  I.  C.  Mc- 
Neill, of  Memphis.  Professors  O.  O.  Norris,  S.  B.  Laird. 
and  H.  C.  Lott.  of  Ypsilanti. 

To  the  Public  School  Teachers  of  the  United  States, 
whose  work  must  be  the  principal  reliance  of  this  Nation 
for  the  perpetuity  of  its  institutions,  this  volume  is  ad- 
dressed. 
May  1,  1909.  Ypsilanti,  Michigan. 


Table  of  Contents 


CIIAI'TEK. 

I.  What  a  Teachek  Ought  to  Know 

II.  The  Sttuy  of  Psychology     . 

III.  What  Education  Is        ...        ■ 

IV.  What  Education  Does  For  the  Child 
V.  The  Aim  of  Education 

VI.  The  Argument  For  the  Com:,:cn  School 

VII.  Periods   of   Child   Development 

VIII.  The  Theory  of  Play      .... 

IX.  Interest  

X.  Imitation  

XI.  Apperception  

XII.  The  Problem  of  Teaching  Children  How  to 

Study  

XIII.  What  Teaching  Is        ...        • 

XIV.  The  Recitation 

XV.  Different  Forms  of  Recitation 

XVI.     School   Discipline  .... 

XVII.     Motives    In   'School        .... 

XVIII.     School  Incentives  .... 

XIX.     Formation  of  the  General  Abstract  Xotion 
XX.     The  Growth  of  Children     . 
XXI.    Defective   Vision  .... 

XXII.     Defective  Hearing         .... 
XXIII.    Fatigue,  Lefthandedness,  Xkrvousness, 

TURE  AND  Disease      .... 
XXIV.     Thf.  Course  of   Study 

7 


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382 
401 


PRINCIPLES  OF   TEACHING 

CHAPTER  I.     ' 

What  a  Teacher  Oug'ht-^  ^to  '  ivNO''^;^     " 

Professional  Knozdedge. — It  is  not  intended,  in  this 
introductory  chapter,  to  point  out  all  the  things  that  a 
teacher  ought  to  know,  nor  to  include  in  the  statement 
all  the  things  that  well-informed  individuals  who  may 
become  teachers  are  likely  to  learn.  Rather  it  is  intended 
to  assert  that  there  are  some  things  which  a  teacher, 
from  the  mere  fact  of  being  a  teacher,  ought  to  know, 
but  which  it  is  not  necessary  that  well-informed  persons 
who  are  not  teachers,  should  know.  Teaching  is  profes- 
sional work,  and  there  is  a  body  of  knowledge  which  per- 
tains especially  to  the  profession.  It  is  this  professional 
knowledge  which  distinguishes  teaching  from  other  pro- 
fessions, and  the  professional  from  the  non-profes- 
sional teacher.  It  is  a  body  of  knowledge  without 
which  no  teacher  can  hope  to  rise  to  the  point  of  greatest 
effectiveness  in  his  profession,  or  make  his  work  ac- 
complish as  much  for  the  children  placed  in  his  care  as 
it  might  do. 

Knozvlcdge  of  the  Subject. — First,  the  teacher  ought 

9 


10  I'KIXCIPLES   OF    TEACH  I XG 

to  know  the  subject  whicli  he  is  called  upon  to  teach. 
We  may  agree  heartily  with  the  proposition  here  ad- 
vanced, and  assert  as  strongly  as  anybody  can  assert  it. 
that  the  teacher  ought  to  know  a  good  deal  more  about 
the  subject  than  he  is  called  upon  to  teach.  But  the 
statement  as  it  is  usually  made  contains  some  implica- 
tions, with  which  we  ma\'  not  agree.  It  contains  the 
implication,  usually,  that  the  knowledge  of  the  subject 
is  the  onl\-  thing  that  :s  necessary  for  the  teacher  to 
learn  in  order  to  be  a  good  teacher,  and  that  the  more 
he  knows  of  the  subject  the  better  teacher  he  will  be. 
Assent  cannot  be  given  to  these  propositions  without 
reservation  It  is  not  true  that  the  better  scholar  is 
always  the  better  teacher,  and  it  is  not  true  that  ad- 
ditional knowledge  of  the  subject,  beyond  a  certain  point, 
will  result  in  improvement  in  teaching.  Xeither  is  it 
altogether  true  that  a  person  cannot  teach  what  he  does 
not  know.  The  very  essence  of  the  inductive  spirit  is 
that  of  discovery,  and  a  teacher  may  guide,  in  a  degree, 
the  activities  of  the  children  without  knowing  exactly 
what  the  result  of  those  activities  may  be.  The  result, 
in  such  a  case,  however,  is  nut  likely  to  be  so  satisfac- 
torv  as  if  he  knows  beforehand  what  it  will  be. 
since  he  thereby  may  avoid  much  waste  of  energy. 

Tlic  Born  Tca'chcr. — There  is  another  implication  in 
the  statement  that  the  teacher  must  know  the  subject 
which  he  is  to  teach,  and  sometimes,  instead  of  being 
implied,  it  is  o]ienly  expressed.  That  implication  is  that 
if  a  person  is  a  born  teacher  and  knows  the  subject  he 


WHAT    A    TRACHKK    OUGHT   TO    KNOW  11 

can  U'ach  it:  and  i  l"  lu>  is  iiol  a  Ijorn  tcacluT  lie  canmit 
teach.  The  iniphc.-itidii  is  thai  ability  to  teach  is  a  natural 
'•ifl  and  not  a  matter  of  traininn'.  The  art-unient  runs 
about  as  follows:  A  ])erson  who  is  a  Ijorn  teacher 
will  be  able  to  teach  the  thinc^s  that  he  knows;  therefore 
there  is  no  need  for  any  in.struction  in  the  art  of  teachins^^. 
A  person  who  is  not  a  born  teacher  can  never  be  taught 
to  teach,  so  all  attempts  to  give  instruction  in  the  art 
of  teaching  are  useless. 

The  Born  Musician. — Let  us  draw  a  parallel.  Nearly 
every  one  is  acquainted  with  some  person  who  may  be 
called  a  born  musician.  He  can  learn  to  sing  or  whistle 
a  tune  with  the  greatest  facility,  and  will  play  almost 
any  instrument  with  which  he  becomes  acquainted.  We 
may  call  him  a  born  mtisician  ;  and,  according  to  the  ar- 
"fument  in  case  of  the  born  teacher,  there  is  no  occa- 
sion  for  his  attending  a  conservatory  of  music,  nor 
taking  lessons  in  musical  art.  P.ut  a  person  who  is  pos- 
sessed of  such  natural  aptittide  is  the  one  who  is  most 
likely  to  avail  himself  of  all  possible  opportunities  for 
musical  instruction  in  his  own  and  foreign  countries.  It 
is  evident  that  this  amount  of  instrtiction  in  music  would 
be  considered  neither  profitable  nor  appropriate  for  one 
who  has  not  great  natural  talent  in  music.  Only  the  born 
musician  is  ever  considered  worthy  of  such  an  amount 
of  musical  training.  So  it  is  with  the  born  teacher. 
Only  the  born  teacher  is  worth  training.  The  person 
who  has  no  natural  ability  for  teaching  is  one  whom  it 
is  impossible  ever  to  train  to  teach.     Tlence  in  a  very 


12  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

true  sense  we  may  say  that  only  the  born  teacher  can 
ever  be  trained  to  teach. 

To  say,  however,  that  a  person  is  a  born  teacher  im- 
phes  that  very  few  persons  have  the  natural  ability  to 
teach.  The  truth  is  that  teaching  ability  exists  in  various 
degrees  in  a  great  many  persons.  Nearly  everybody 
has  more  or  less  of  teaching  talent,  and  nearly  every- 
bodv  can  learn   to  teach. 

Knowledge  of  the  Subject  Not  Sufficient  Prepara- 
tion.— There  is  still  another  very  mischievous  form  of 
the  argument  against  the  special  preparation  of  teachers. 
Coupled  with  the  assertion  that  a  teacher  is  born,  not 
made,  goes  the  suggestion  that  greater  knowledge  of 
the  subject  is  the  only  preparation  for  teaching  that 
can  be  made.  If  a  person  knows  the  subject  he  can  very 
quickly  learn  the  methods  of  teaching.  An  ounce  of 
practice  is  worth  a  ton  of  theory.  A  person  who  knows 
a  subject  has  learned  the  process  by  which  he  has  ac- 
quired it.  and  he  knows  the  methods  that  his  teachers 
have  employed.  There  can  be  no  valid  reason  then,  for 
special  preparation  for  teaching.  Thus  runs  the  argu- 
ment. 

Parallel  of  the  Physician  and  the  Laivyer. — Let  us 
apply  the  same  process  of  reasoning  to  another  profes- 
sion. Suppose  that  a  person  wishes  to  become  a  physi- 
cian. Assum.e  that  he  is  man  in  good  health 
He  knows  what  good  health  is  and  how  to  maintain  it, 
as  his  present  healthy  condition  shows.  Let  us  advise 
him  to  attend  some  school  where  he  will  have  his  mind 


WHAT    A    TEACHER    OUGHT   TU    KNOW  13 

developed.  Then,  when  he  wishes  to  begin  the  practice 
of  medicine,  he  will  soon  learn  how  to  distinguish  dis- 
eases and  tlie  proper  remedies  to  apply.  His  mind  has 
been  so  well  trained  that  he  will  quickly  achieve  eminence 
in  his  profession,  and  schools  for  training  in  medicine 
will  be  unnecessary  and  useless. 

So  too.  if  a  young  man  wishes  to  practice  law,  let 
us  advise  him  to  study  Latin  and  Greek  and  other  sub- 
jects that  will  give  him  mental  discipline,  so  that  as  soon 
as  he  wishes  to  undertake  the  practice  of  law,  his  well- 
trained  mind  will  enable  him  to  surpass  others  who 
have  had  only  the  limited  training  that  is  given  in  law 
schools.  He  can  learn  the  methods  of  legal  practice  in 
a  short  time  by  observation  in  the  court  room. 

We  see  the  absurdity  of  such  argument  as  soon  as 
it  is  stated  in  terms  of  another  profession  than  that  of 
teaching.  In  fact,  teaching  is  the  only  profession  in 
w^hich  knowledge  of  the  professional  aspect  of  the  sub- 
ject  is  ever  considered  useless   and   inadvisable. 

TJic  Phases  of  Professional  Training. — The  profes- 
sional training  of  a  teacher  includes  at  least  three  dis- 
tinct lines  of  work ;  there  must  be  first  and  fundament- 
ally a  knowledge  of  the  subject.  This  knowledge  must 
be  so  full  that  it  will  permit  the  teacher  in  tlie  recita- 
tion to  be  free  to  follow  the  operations  of  the  children's 
minds  rather  than  to  be  concerned  with  the  facts  of  the 
lesson.  Such  freedom  is  an  immediate  condition  for  all 
good  teaching.  There  is  no  disposition  to  underesti- 
mate the  importance  of  knowledge  of  the  subject,  al- 


14  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

though  of  the  three  Hnes  of  work  involved  in  the  pro- 
fessional preparation  of  teachers,  perhaps  either  of  the 
others  is  of  more  importance.  Especially  is  this  true, 
if  by  knowledge  of  the  subject  we  mean,  as  is  generally 
the  case,  an  academic,  as  distinguished  from  a  profes- 
sional knowledge  of  it. 

Two  Facts  About  Knozdcdge. — There  are  two  con- 
siderations about  the  knowledge  of  the  subject  that  ought 
to  be  noticed.  The  first  is  that  our  knowledge  of  the 
subject  is  the  result  of  constantly  learning,  forgetting 
and  relearning  it.  Knowledge  is  not  something  that 
can  be  accumulated  and  made  a  pernianent  possession. 
Our  knowledge  is  constantly  changing;  it  is  in  a  state 
of  flux  and  flow ;  it  is  subject  to  constant  modifications 
caused  by  our  learning  of  other  things,  and  modified 
by  our  tendency  to  forget.  A  teacher  who  is  not  con- 
stantly learning  or  relearning  a  subject  is  not  very  well 
prepared  for  teaching  it.  It  is  scarcely  too  much  to  say, 
that  everything  we  know,  which  is  available  for  our 
teaching,  has  been  learned  within  the  past  five  years. 
The  teacher  whose  acquisition  of  knowledge  terminates 
with  his  school  days  very  quickly  ceases  to  be  of  value 
as  a  teacher. 

Difference  Betzvecn  Academic  and  Professional  Knoid- 
cdi:,e. — There  has  already  been  indicated  a  difference 
bclwecn  an  academic  and  a  professional  knowledge  of 
llic  subject.  A  tfaclicr  needs  to  liaAc  a  very  different 
knowledge  of  ihc  subject  from  that  wliich  tlir  pui)il  ac- 
([uires.  or  from  that  which  is  possessed  by  the  ordinary 


WHAT    A    TKACIIER    OUGHT    TO    KNOW  15 

well-informed  person.  This  professional  aspect  of  the 
snbject  is  a  part  of  the  technique  of  the  teachinj^  pro- 
fession, and  cannot  he  disregarded.  Not  only  must 
the  teacher's  knowledge  of  the  subject  be  more  extensive 
than  the  pupil  is  likely  to  acquire,  but  it  must  differ  in 
kind.  Let  us  illustrate  by  an  example  from  arithmetic : 
Illustration  from  Arithmetic. — Suppose  that  the 
teacher  has  a  class  in  arithmetic,  and  it  has  been  decided 
tliat  the  lesson  for  the  day  shall  be  the  fraction  tJirce- 
foiirths.  The  teacher's  knowledge  of  the  subject  cer- 
tainly includes  a  knowledge  of  the  fraction.  Suppose 
the  teacher  proceeds  upon  the  assumption  that  three- 
fourths  indicates  that  a  unit  has  been  divided  into  four 
equal  parts  and  three  of  the  parts  have  been  taken.  He 
may  proceed  by  cutting  an  apple  into  four  equal  parts 
and  exhibiting  three  of  the  parts.  Or,  what  is  decidedly 
better,  he  may  have  each  pupil  in  the  class  perform  the 
operation  of  division  and  selection.  But  the  first  ques- 
tion that  arises  may  be  in  connection  with  a  piece  of 
pie.  A  boy  wants  a  whole  piece ;  it  is  not,  to  him,  a 
fraction.  A  piece  is  not  a  fraction  in  itself,  although 
it  is  one  of  the  equal  parts.  Here  the  teacher  discovers 
that  he  needs  to  distinguish  between  the  fractional  unit 
and  the  unit  of  the  fraction.  This  idea  is  scarcely  new 
to  him,  nor  perhaps  to  the  children.  But  the  next  prob- 
lem says  that  John  has  twelve  marbles  and  gave  Henry 
three-fourths  of  them.  It  is  difficult  for  the  teacher 
to  make  his  children  see  that  twelve  marbles  is  a  unit 
that  may  be  divided  into  fractional  parts.     Evidently  the 


16  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

teacher  needs  to  know  something  more  about  a  fraction 
than  he  has  yet  learned  in  an  academic  way  before  he  is 
ready  to  teach  it  with  profit. 

A  Fraction  as  a  Ratio. — Again,  the  teacher  may  as- 
sume that  a  fraction  is  a  ratio  expressing  the  relation 
of  one  number  to  another.  If  he  proceeds  upon  this  as- 
sumption, he  will  need  to  get  some  blocks  or  other  ob- 
jects that  have  easily  discoverable  ratios  to  each  other, 
and  cause  the  children  to  recognize  and  state  the  ratio 
between  the  two  objects  selected.  The  process  is  quite 
different  from  the  other  method  of  procedure  and  has 
caused  much  acrimonious  discussion  over  method  among 
teachers.  There  is  nothing  in  this  procedure  about  the 
fractional  unit  nor  the  unit  of  the  fraction.  The  teacher 
is  therefore  called  upon  to  decide  which  of  these  views  of 
the  nature  of  the  fraction  is  the  true  one ;  and  then  only 
is  ready  to  proceed  with  the  teaching  of  his  class. 

Professional  Knowledge  of  a  Fraction. — But  a  proper 
professional  knowledge  of  the  nature  of  the  fraction 
will  show  that  all  the  devices  for  teaching  fractions  and 
the  particular  ideas  expressed  in  them  are  only  partial, 
and  merely  illustrative  of  the  much  more  comprehensive 
understanding  which  the  teacher  must  have  before  he 
is  ready  to  teach  thrcc-foiirtJis  properly  to  a  class.  These 
devices  and  the  applications  of  fractions  underlying 
them  are  the  only  things  that  the  pupil  can  see.  and  are 
almost  the  only  things  that  a  teacher  who  has  not  made 
special  preparation    for  teaching  is  likely  to  know. 

Essential  Difference  Betzvecn  a  Fraction  and  an  In- 


WHAT    A    TKACITEU    OUGHT    TO    KXOW  17 

tcgcr. — When  we  come  to  understand  a  fraction  prop- 
erly we  shall  find  that  it  is  an  extension  of  the  number 
concept.  Our  ordinar}-  integral  numbers  are  decimal 
numbers  having  a  constant  base  of  ten,  and  expressed 
bv  using  the  device  of  place-value.  Before  we  are  able 
to  teach  fractions  properly,  we  must  know  a  good  deal 
more  about  decimal  numbers  than  it  is  profitable  to  teach 
to  children.  We  must  know  what  is  meant  by  place- 
value,  and  how  important  it  is  in  the  making  of  arith- 
metical calculations.  We  should  have  tried  to  multiply 
and  divide  numbers  expressed  in  the  Roman  notation. 
We  should  have  seen  the  limitation  imposed  upon  arith- 
metic by  such  notation,  and  should  have  recognized  the 
tremendous  improvement  introduced  by  the  Arabic  no- 
tation. Then  we  must  have  realized  what  is  meant  by  a 
base.  In  the  decimal  number  we  carry  one  for  every 
ten.  Ten  units  of  one  denomination  make  one  of  the 
next  higher.  W'e  should  have  tried  to  reduce  a  decimal 
number  in  which  the  base  is  ten,  to  an  equivalent  ex- 
pression in  a  svstem  in  which  the  base  is  twelve  or 
eis"ht  or  some  other  number.  Then  we  shall  understand 
that  a  fraction  is  a  number  which  has  no  constant  base, 
but  whose  base  is  expressed  by  the  denominator.  When 
we  rcfluce  a  fraction  to  an  equivalent  fraction  having 
another  denominator,  we  are  changing  a  number  from 
a  system  having  one  base  to  an  equivalent  number  ex- 
pressed in  a  system    with  a  dififerent  base. 

Importance  of  Professional  Knoiulcdge  of  a  Fraction. 
— The   common    fraction    does    not   employ   place-value; 


18  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

hence  it  is  that  operations  performed  with  fractions  are 
attended  with  greater  difficulties  than  teachers  ordinarily 
suppose.  Only  when  we  have  arrived  at  some  such 
understanding  of  the  nature  of  a  fraction  are  we  able 
to  teach  fractions  as  well  as  we  should  ;  and  then  only 
are  we  able  to  see  that  the  dividing  of  an  object  into 
equal  parts  is  an  illustration  of  the  fraction  concept, 
and  does  not  itself  exjiress  the  true  nature  of  the  frac- 
tion. This  conception  of  the  fraction  is  far  beyond  the 
comprehension  of  the  children  of  the  grades  in  which 
the  subject  of  fractions  is  taught,  and  is  not  obtained 
by  the  study  of  algebra  or  higher  mathematics.  No 
amount  of  knowledge  of  algebra  or  analytics  or  calculus 
will  make  a  person  a  good  teacher  of  fourth  grade  arith- 
metic. No  amount  of  knowledge  of  literature  or  rheto- 
ric or  Anglo-Saxon  will  make  a  person  a  good  teacher 
of  reading  for  a  primary  grade.  It  must  be  a  knowledge 
of  the  subject  itself,  far  beyond  the  limits  that  the  chil- 
dren are  able  to  comprehend,  which  constitutes  a  knowl- 
edge of  subject  matter  necessary  for  a  teacher. 

Illiistrafioii  from  Craiiiiuar. — Let  us  illu^^.trate  the 
kind  of  knowledge  that  a  teacher  must  possess  bv  an 
example  drawn  from  grammar.  Let  us  suppose  that 
we  have  a  class  beginning  grammar,  and  that  we  are 
l)roposing  to  have  our  children  learn  and  understand  the 
dififerent  elements  of  a  sentence.  W'c  have  chosen  for 
our  illustrative  sentence  the  favorite  one  in  grammars, 
Lead  is  a  metal.  We  have  our  pupils  learn  that  lead  is 
the  subject,  is  is  the  copula  and  metal  is  the  predicate. 


WHAT    A    TEACHER    OUGHT    TO    KNOW  19 

But  some  inquisitive  chikl  a^ks  why  lead  is  the  subject. 
We  replv  that  something-  is  said  about  lead.  Then  he 
asks  if  somethins:  is  not  said  about  metal:  and  if  we  are 
honest  we  reply,  "Certainly,  but  lead  is  that  of  which 
something  is  affirmed."  Then  he  asks  what  do  we  mean 
by  affirmed,  when  we  are  likely  to  suggest  that  it  is 
about  time  for  recess. 

In  order  that  the  teacher  shall  be  able  to  teach 
children  with  confidence,  and  to  inspire  the  proper  kind 
of  confidence  in  them,  as  well  as  to  judge  what  is  the 
best  method  uf  procedure  in  a  given  case,  the  teacher 
must  know  what  reall}-  con^titutes  the  distinction  between 
the  dififerent  elements  of  a  sentence.  He  must  know 
the  psychological  processes  that  give  rise  to  grammatical 
distinctions.  He  must  know  that  a  sentence,  or  a  propo- 
sition, is  the  expression  of  a  judgment.  He  must  know 
that  in  making  a  judgment  two  different  ideas,  or  con- 
cepts, are  held  up  in  the  mind  and  compared. 
He  must  know  that  the  two  concepts  are  not 
of  equal  rank  in  the  process  of  judging,  but 
that  one  of  them  is  used  as  a  standard  of  comparison, 
and  the  other  is  brought  beside  it  to  be  compared :  that 
the  expression  of  the  concept  which  is  the  standard  is  the 
predicate,  and  the  expression  of  the  concept  which  is 
compared  with  the  standard  is  the  subject ;  that  the  ex- 
pression of  the  judgment  itself  is  the  cojiula.  The  copula 
is  the  wonl  whicli  expresses  the  agreement  of  the  two 
concepts  with  each  other.  (  )nlv  this  kind  of  knowlcflgc 
will  enable  the  teacher  to  teach  grammar  with  assurance 


20  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

and  with  the  highest  kind  of  success.  This  is  not  the 
grammar  of  the  grades  nor  of  the  high  school.  It  is 
rather  the  ps}chology  of  grammar. 

lUustration  from  History.. — This  matter  is  of  so  great 
importance  that  it  is  worth  while  to  use  another  illustra- 
tion. Let  us  employ  an  illustration  from  history,  for 
the  purpose  and  content  of  history  are  so  generally  mis- 
understood. Suppose  that  the  lesson  for  the  day  is  the 
Landing  of  the  Filgrints,  and  the  children,  havmg  studied 
their  lesson  in  the  text-hook,  come  up  to  recite.  They 
recite  that  the  Pilgrims  landed  on  Plymouth  Rock  on  the 
twenty-first  of  December ;  that  there  were  one  hundred 
one  of  them,  and  that  they  came  over  in  a  vessel  called 
the  Mayflower.  If  a  child  recites  these  facts  promptly 
the  teacher  is  likely  to  call  it  good  recitation. 

Unimportant  Details. — But  let  us  examine  the  matter. 
Let  us  suppose  tliat  instead  of  landing  on  Plymouth 
Rock  they  had  landed  on  the  sandy  beach  beside  it.  Sup- 
p»ose  that  instead  of  being  the  twenty-first  of  December  it 
had  been  the  twenty-fifth  or  the  nineteenth.  Suppose 
tliat  instead  of  being  one  hundred  one  persons  there  had 
been  ninety-nine,  or  one  hundred  five  ;  and  su])pose  that 
instead  of  being  called  the  Mayfiower  the  vessel  had 
been   called   the   Derelict,  or  some  other  name. 

I^ow  different  is  the  teaching  of  this  event  from  what 
it  would  be  if  the  Pilgrims  had  landed  in  sunny  June; 
and  yet  its  real  significance  would  not  be  in  the  least 
changed. 

^^^^en  the  pupils  have  recited  the  facts  enumerated, 


W  II  \T    A    Ti:Atlli:k    OUGHT    TO    KNOW  21 

and  have  done  it  well,  the  teacher  feels  like  commending 
them,  while  there  has  hcen  only  a  single  item  of  essen- 
tial importance.  All  circnmstances  might  have  heen 
different  from  what  they  were  without  modifying  in  the 
slightest  degree  the  essential  idea  underlying  the  landing 
of  the  Pilgrims.  \Miat,  then,  is  this  essential  idea  which 
it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to  know  in  order  that  his 
pupils  may  derive  anything  like  the  proper  amount  of 
benefit  from  the  history  lesson,  and  without  which  the 
learning  of  it  is  all  vain  and  wasted  effort? 

The  Essential  Idea. — The  teacher  must  know  that 
the  voyage  of  the  Pilgrims  was  the  expression  of  an 
idea.  Essentially,  it  was  an  expression  of  a  desire  for 
religious  freedom.  The  teacher  must  see  in  the  voyage 
of  the  Pilgrims  the  flower  and  the  fruit  of  a  long  train 
of  circumstances  :  and  must  see  in  this  flower  and  fruit 
the  seed  of  another  long  train  of  circumstances  springing 
out  of  it,  and  running  through  all  expressions  of  our 
national  life  down  to  the  present  time.  The  landing  of 
the  Pilgrims  is,  then,  the  connecting  link  between  two 
great  trains  of  circumstances,  expressing  the  conflict  of 
opposing  ideas.  One  train  of  circumstances  preceded  the 
coming  of  the  Pilgrims  ;  the  other  followed  it,  and  finds 
its  expression  in  our  national  and  social  life.  Unless 
the  teacher  can  look  before  and  after  this  voyage,  and 
see  these  trains  of  circumstances  expressing  opposing 
ideas,  he  will  not  be  able  to  teach  the  landing  of  the 
Pilgrims  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner. 

Difference   Betzceen   a   l\^aehcy's   Kiiozvledge   and   a 


22  I'klXCiri.ES   OF    TEACTllXC, 

Pupil's. — This  effective  knowlcd.q'c  of  llic  subject  is 
somethin,L;'  tliat  the  non-professional  person  docs  not  have, 
nor  does  \\c  need  to  liave  it.  It  is  a  kind  of  knowledge  of 
the  subject  that  the  pupil  does  not  get,  and  it  is  not 
necessary  thai  he  should.  I'.ut  it  is  the  kind  of  knowledge 
that  makes  the  work  of  the  teacher  eltective,  and  which 
it  is  necessary  that  he  should  have  if  his  work  is  to  be 
the  best  that  it  may  become.  It  is  a  knowledge  of  the 
thing  that  is  to  be  taught,  not  necessarily  a  knowledge 
of  other  subjects  foreign  to  that  of  instruction.  It  is  not 
a  knowledge  of  higher  mathematics  that  makes  an  ef- 
fective teacher  of  arithmetic  or  of  algebra.  It  is  a 
knowledge  of  arithmetic  and  of  algebra  that  makes  the 
effective  teacher  of  those  subjects. 

Knoided gc  of  tJic  Purpose  of  Education. — Pedagogi- 
cal as  well  as  academic  knowledge  of  the  subject,  then, 
is  necessary.  But  even  more  necessary  for  effective 
teaching  is  a  knowledge  of  the  purposes  of  education. 
The  community,  by  the  very  process  of  establishing  a 
school,  recognizes  the  fact  and  registers  its  belief  that 
the  child  who  attends  a  school  will  become  a  dift'erent 
person  than  he  would  liecome  did  he  not  attend  school. 
The  community  establishes  a  school  as  the  specific  in- 
stitution for  bringing  about  a  desired  change  in 
the  individual.  The  pupil  who  attends  school  may  be 
modified  in  one  direction  or  another  according  as  the 
school  is  planned  to  affect  his  growth  in  one  or  the  other 
direction.  The  teacher  must  know  the  direction  in  which 
it  is  desirable  that  the  child's  grov/th  shall  be  modified. 


WHAT    A    TEACHER    OUGHT    TO    KNOW  23 

or  he  will  not  be  able  to  work  effectively  in  the  chosen 
direction. 

The  teacher  must  know  the  end  and  purpose  of  edu- 
cation. If  the  teacher  adopts  the  knoiulcdge  aim  of 
education,  and  believes  that  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
is  the  purpose  for  which  the  school  has  been  established, 
he  will  teach  in  one  way.  If  he  believes  that  mental 
discipline  is  the  end  and  purpose  of  education,  he  will 
teach  in  a  different  way.  If  he  believes  that  the  de- 
velopment of  the  moral  nature  of  children  is  the  one 
and  only  purpose  of  education,  he  will  select  dift'erent 
subjects  of  instruction,  and  will  teach  in  a  dift'erent 
manner  than  he  would  if  he  believed  mental  discipline 
or  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  to  be  the  end  and  pur- 
pose of  education.  If  he  adopts  the  aim  of  social  efficiency 
as  the  purpose  of  education,  then  again  his  methods  of 
teaching  and  his  selection  of  subject  matter  will  be  es- 
sentially different  from  what  it  would  be  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  other  aims.  It  is  important,  then,  that  the 
teacher  shall  have  clearly  in  mind  all  the  time  the  end 
that  is  to  be  sought  in  school  work,  and  that  he  shall 
know  how  to  proceed  to  make  the  desired  change  in  the 
minds  and  characters  of  the  children. 

Purpose  Determines  the  Method. — Both  the  subject 
matter  and  the  method  of  instruction  will  be  determined 
bv  the  end  and  purpose  of  education  that  is  established 
in  the  mind  of  the  teacher.  In  order  to  produce  the  de- 
sired change  upon  the  mind  and  character  of  the  child 
certain  mental  experiences  must  be  engendered  in   him. 


24  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

The  child  and  the  man  is  inevitably  determined  by  what 
he  thinks.  If  the  teacher  can  cause  the  child  to  think 
in  a  certain  way,  to  experience  the  proper  kind  of  men- 
tal processes,  than  he  can  effectively  develop  the  child 
in  the  proper  direction.  It  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
that  the  teacher  shall  know,  not  only  the  end  and  pur- 
pose of  education,  and  the  kind  of  person  which  he 
wishes  the  child  to  become,  but  he  must  also  know  the 
mental  processes  that  will  lead  him  in  the  direction  of 
the  end  sought.  If  he  does  not  know  what  the  mental 
processes  are,  and  is  unable  to  distinguish  these  mental 
processes  when  the  child  does  experience  them,  then 
his  work  will  inevitably  be  blind,  haphazard  and  ineffect- 
ive. A  person  who  teaches  without  a  knowledge  of 
what  mental  processes  a  child  experiences,  can  never 
teach  so  effectively  as  he  would  if  he  knew  what  those 
mental   processes   are. 

The  Pedagogical  Content. — This  second  element  in 
the  teacher's  effective  knowledge  then,  includes  also,  a 
knowledge  of  the  pedagogical  content  of  the  subject. 
What  is  there  in  this  subject  that  is  capable  of  being 
used  to  induce  the  mental  ]M-ocesses  which  it  is  necessary 
for  the  child  to  experience  in  order  to  attain  the  end 
of  education  which  the  community  has  established  and 
which  the  teacher  has  recognized.  Here  is  a  new  view- 
point for  the  study  of  the  subject.  Tlie  course  of  study 
and  the  selection  of  the  subject  matter  is  to  be  deter- 
mined, not  by  tradition,  but  by  its  pedagogical  content. 
Every  subject  of  instruction   must  be   subjected  to  this 


WHAT    A    TEACllKR    OUCllT    TU    KNOW  25 

scrutiny.  We  have  proceeded  not  very  far  in  tliis  direc- 
tion, but  there  is  room  for  much  careful  work  by  every 
teacher  in  trying  to  understand  the  subject  as  material 
for  inducing  mental  processes. 

Knotvledgc  of  the  Child. — The  third  kind  of  knowl- 
edge that  the  teacher  ought  to  have  is  a  knowledge  of 
child  nature.  Although  placed  last  in  order  of  men- 
tion, this  is  perhaps  most  important  of  all.  The  teacher's 
knowledge  of  the  child  is  not  that  kind  of  knowledge 
of  children  that  persons  who  are  not  teachers  have.  It  is 
a  kind  of  special,  professional  knowledge  of  children. 
It  is  different  from  that  which  is  obtained  by  casual  in- 
tercourse with  them.  The  knowledge  of  children  that 
a  teacher  must  have  is  a  knowledge  of  the  individual 
children  who  are  seated  before  him.  It  is  not  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  average  child,  nor  of  children  in  the 
abstract,  but  of  the  concrete  specimens  which  constitute 
his  class. 

Phenomena  of  Child  Development. — A  teacher  must 
know  that  certain  instincts  develop  at  certain  times  and 
that  the  sudden  development  of  instincts  accounts  for 
many  actions  of  children.  The  fear  of  furred  animals 
and  feathered  creatures  appears  suddenly  and  rather 
earlier  than  the  children  are  sent  to  school.  The  demand 
for  society  appears  in  children  about  the  time  that  they 
become  of  school  age.  and  then  it  is  that  children  need 
to  play  with  other  children.  The  teacher  needs  to  know 
that  the  first  social  games  of  children  are  largely  competi- 
tive plays,  and  that  competition  is  an  essential  element  in 


26  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

child  life.  Love  plays  do  not  appear,  nor  become  of  inter- 
est to  children  until  the  period  of  oncoming  adolescence. 
The  teacher  needs  to  know  that  respect  for  law  appears 
rather  suddenly  and  that  school  crimes  have  their  ex- 
planation in  the  retarding  of  the  social  impulses  which 
lead  children  to  respect  the  rights  of  property  and  the 
virtue  of  truthfulness.  Children  in  whom  these  impulses 
are  belated  are  examples  of  retarded  development,  and 
the  teacher  needs  to  know  this  fact  in  order  to  employ 
the  best  method  of  procedure  to  enable  such  children  to 
grow  into  the  proper  respect  for  law  and  order.  The  ado- 
lescent period  is  remarkable  for  the  great  and  sudden 
changes  that  occur  in  the  nature  and  interests  of  chil- 
dren. 

Possible  Injury  from  Ignorance. — A  person  who  is 
ignorant  of  these  facts  of  child  life  and  is  unacquainted 
with  the  phenomena  of  adolescence  is  as  likely  to  do  in- 
jury to  children  as  he  is  to  do  good.  Sometimes  the 
best  recommendation  that  a  teacher  can  have  is  that  he 
is  ineffective.  He  is  like  a  homeopathic  pill.  At  least 
he  can  do  no  harm. 

Much  has  been  written  in  recent  years  about  the 
phenomena  of  adolescence,  but  other  periods  of  child 
life  are  as  full  of  startling  changes  as  this.  The  teacher 
who  does  not  know  these  facts  of  child  life  is  unable 
to  attain  his  highest  efficiency. 

Necessity  for  Continuous  Study. — These  are  the  lines 
of  professional  knowledge  in  wdiich  each  teacher  ought 
to  grow.     No  teacher  can  ever  be  called  master  of  them 


WUAl     A    TEACHER    OUGHT     Tt)    KNOW  27 

all.  but  ever\'  teacher  may  jicrsist  in  the  acquisition  of 
this  kind  of  knowledge  as  long  as  he  teaches.  A  per- 
son who  has  not  had  special  preparation  for  teaching 
before  he  begins  is  handicapped  in  all  his  work,  but  the 
best  professional  preparation  merely  prepares  one  to 
enter  upon  the  study  of  the  profession.  Such  a  person 
has  not  completed  his  professional  study.     He  is  only 

beginning  it.  ^ 

'^         '='  Synopsis. 

1.  There  is  a  difiference  between  the  knowledge  of 
a  subject  that  a  teacher  needs  to  have  and  that  wdiich 
a  pupil,  or  a  well-informed  person  is  likely  to  get.  It 
is  this  difference  which  constitutes  the  professional 
knowledge  of  teaching,  and  distinguishes  the  professional 
from  the  non-professional  teacher. 

2.  The  teacher  should  know,  not  only  the  subject 
in  a  professional  way,  but  he  needs  to  know  the  real 
purpose  and  aim  of  education.  Only  when  this  is  known 
can  he  most  effectively  direct  his  efforts  in  teaching. 

3.  The  teacher  should  study  child  nature,  and  the 
changes  which  occur  in  the  mental  and  moral  constitu- 
tion of  the  child  in  the  course  of  the  child's  school  career. 
He  needs  to  know,  also,  the  mental  processes  which  it 
is  necessary  to  induce  in  the  child  to  lead  him  to  ac- 
complish the  purpose  for  which  he  is  sent  to  school. 

4.  The  teacher  needs  to  know  the  pedagogical  con- 
tent of  the  subject ;  or  what  there  is  in  the  subject  that 
may  be  used  to  induce,  in  the  course  of  learning  it,  that 
mental  process  which  will  produce  the  desired  effect 
upon  the  child. 


CHAPTER   II. 

The  Study  of  Psychology. 

JJ^Iiy  Study  Psychology/' — Psychology  is  the  basis  of 
all  scientific  pedagogy.  No  course  of  training  for  teach- 
ers can  be  considered  satisfactory  that  is  not  established 
upon  psychological  foundations,  yet  it  is  not  always  easy 
to  state  wherein  the  study  of  psychology  has  aided  the 
teacher.  If  the  preceding  statement  is  true,  we  must 
be  able  to  show  wherein  the  teacher  who  has  studied 
psychology  is  better  prepared  for  his  work  than  is  one 
who  has  not  studied  psychology.  We  must  show  in 
w^hat  respect  a  teacher  who  has  studied  psychology  is 
a  better  teacher  than  the  same  person  would  have 
become  had  lie  not  studied  psychology.  Or,  again,  we 
must  show  in  what  respect  he  is  a  better  teacher  than 
he  would  have  become,  if  instead  of  studying  psychology 
lie  had  devoted  the  same  amount  of  energ}'  to  studying 
something  else. 

Psychology  Not  a  Set  of  Rules. — One  misapprehen- 
sion of  the  subject  is  very  common  among  teachers.  The 
belief  is  prevalent  that  psychology  is  a  set  of  rules 
which  will  direct  us  in  the  process  oi  teaching.  Many 
teachers  believe  that  nothing  that  they  have  learned  in 
psychology   has    helped   them    in    their   teaching.      The 

28 


THE    STUDY   OF    PSVCHOLOc;V  29 

origin  of  this  belief  is  found  in  the  fact  that  they  have 
looked  upon  psychology  as  something  which  they  could 
apply  directly  in  their  school  work.  A  case  of  discipline, 
a  serious  question  of  method,  a  problem  of  manage- 
ment has  appeared  for  solution,  and  no  psychological 
rule  has  been  at  hand  to  furnish  an  answer.  Hence 
arises  the  statement  that  psychology  has  been  of  no 
service  in  teaching. 

Misapprehension  from  the  Term  Applied  Psychology.. 
— The  belief  that  psychology  is  something  in  the  nature 
of  a  system  of  rules  to  be  acted  upon  in  various  vicissi- 
tudes of  teaching  is  fostered  somewhat  by  the  use  of 
the  term  "applied  psychology."  There  is  a  mischievous 
implication  in  the  term.  In  the  ordinary  sense  of  the 
word  there  can  be  no  such  thing  as  applied  psychology. 
It  is  not  a  series  of  rules  that  can  be  applied  to  teaching. 
In  another  sense  of  the  word,  any  psychology  that  can- 
not be  applied  is  worthless.  Let  us  try  to  understand  the 
advantages  gained  in  the  study  of  psychology,  and  we 
shall  harmonize  the  apparent  contradiction  involved  in 
these  two  statements. 

Effect  of  Psychology  Upon  a  Teacher's  Attitude. — 
The  greatest  efTect  produced  by  the  study  of  psychology 
is  to  be  found  in  the  change  it  makes  in  the  teacher's 
attitude  toward  the  business  of  teaching. 

1.  The  teacher  who  has  studied  psychology  is  likely 
to  teach  the  child,  while  the  teacher  wlio  has  not  studied 
psychology  is  likely  to  teach  the  subject. 

2.  The  teacher  who  has  not  studied  psychologv  is 


30  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

likely  to  pin  his  faith  to  devices,  while  the  teacher 
who  has  studied  psychology  is  likely  to  look  through 
the  devices  to  the  mental  processes  which  the  devices 
are  intended  to  call  forth. 

3.  The  teacher  who  has  not  studied  psychology  is 
satisfied  with  the  learning  of  the  subject,  while  the 
teacher  who  has  studied  psychology  is  likely  to  see  the 
change  which  it  is  designed  to  produce  by  means  of  the 
subject  upon  the  mind  of  the  child,  and  to  recognize  the 
mental  processes  which  it  is  necessary  to  engender  in 
order  to  produce  that  change. 

The  Teacher  Works  With  Children's  Minds. — It  is 
a  truism  too  common  to  have  much  intiuence,  that  a 
teacher  works  with  the  minds  of  the  children.  In  order 
to  know  how  to  work  with  those  minds,  the  teacher 
must  know  the  laws  of  mental  ojKn-atiun  and  growth. 
This  is  a  truth  to  which  many  teachers  will  give  an  in- 
tellectual assent,  and  then  proceed  in  a  manner  directly 
contrary  to  that  in  which  they  must  act  if  they  really 
believed  it  to  be  true.  A  bricklayer  or  a  carpenter  works 
with  material,  and  we  can  rather  easily  estimate  the 
worth  of  his  work  in  the  increase  of  value  which  it  has 
given  to  the  materials  employed.  Such  work  is  not  pro- 
fessional work.  The  teacher's  work  is  professional  work, 
for  it  deals  with  the  immaterial  part  of  man.  and  with  the 
living  spirit.  The  teacher  cannot  rise  to  the  dignity 
of  an  artist  in  his  profession  who  does  not  conceive  of 
his  work  in  this  light.  The  mure  a  teacher  studies 
psychology,  the  more  likely  he  is  to  feel,  to  realize,  and 


THE    STUDY    OF    PSVCHOLOGV  31 

to  act  as  if  he  l)e'lieved  that  he  is  employed  to  produce 
an  effect  upon  the  hving,  spiritual,  immortal  souls 
of  children  entrusted  to  his  care.  Looked  at  in  this  way, 
psychology  is  not  something  that  can  be  learned;  it  is 
something  that  must  be  lived.  W'e  cannot  learn  psy- 
chology, in  this  sense,  in  a  little  while.  Tliere  must  be 
time  enough  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  subject  to  enable 
us  to  attain  the  mental  attitude  here  indicated.  It  is  in 
this  way  that  psychology  appears  to  have  its  greatest 
value. 

Psychology  Teaches  Hoiv  to  Study  Children. — The 
second  advantage  in  the  study  of  psychology  is  apparently 
less  intangible  than  the  one  that  has  just  been  adduced. 
The  teacher  needs  to  study  the  children  in  their  indi- 
vidual capacities.  He  needs  to  know  each  child  in  such 
a  w^ay  that  he  can  appreciate  the  motives  which  induce 
him  to  act  in  the  way  that  he  does,  and  when  his  actions 
are  wrong,  to  apply  such  incentives  as  will  cause  him 
to  act  in  a  different  way.  The  study  of  psychology  is 
a  preparation  for  tlie  study  of  children. 

Why  Begin  JJ'ith  Adult  Psychology? — Adult  psv- 
chology  is  a  necessary  preliminary  to  the  study  of  child 
psychology.  Tt  is  necessary  for  us  to  begin  our  study 
of  psychology  with  an  examination  of  our  own  minds, 
for  our  own  minds  are  the  only  ones  that  we  can  observe 
directly.  We  study  children's  minds  by  interpreting  their 
actions  in  terms  of  our  own  mental  processes,  with  such 
modifications  as  we  believe  to  be  necessary.  A  teacher 
who   has    studied    child   psychology   will   know   to  what 


32  PRIXCIPLES  OF   TEACHING 

motives  he  must  ajDpeal  in  order  to  govern  wisely.  We 
learn,  for  example,  the  theory  of  play.  We  know  from 
our  studies  why  some  plays  have  an  attraction  for  certain 
children,  while  the\-  have  no  attraction  for  children  who 
are  older  or  younger.  We  learn  that  particular  plays 
attract  certain  children  because  they  are  in  a  stage  of 
development  which  corresponds  to  the  activities  involved 
in  the  play.  We  can.  then,  by  observing  the  plays  of 
children  determine  something  about  the  stage  of  devel- 
opment in  which  a  child  is,  and  we  can  adjust  our 
methods,  devices,  and  incentives  to  this  stage  of  his  de- 
velopment. 

Understanding  Delinquent  Children. — Not  different  is 
it  with  lying,  cheating,  and  stealing.  We  learn  in  our 
psvchologv  how  to  regard  these  criminal  instincts  in 
a  scientific  way,  and  we  shall  exercise  greater  wisdom 
in  dealing  with  such  cases  of  criminal  tendency.  Know- 
ing that  we  must  regard  these  criminal  tendencies  as 
manifestations  of  an  undeveloped  condition,  we  may 
avoid  mistakes  that  are  likely  to  confirm  the  child  in 
them,  and  we  shall  know  how  to  appeal  to  the  proper 
motives  to  initiate  courses  of  action  enabling  him  to 
develop  power  to  resist  the  wrong  impulse. 

Psychology  Teaches  Us  to  Understand  Processes  In- 
volved in  Teaching  and  Learning. — We  are  to  teach  chil- 
dren to  think,  but  if  we  do  not  know  what  thinking  is 
we  shall  work  blindly.  When  we  know  that  thinking  con- 
sists in  the  perception  of  relations,  and  that  it  is  possible 
to  reduce  all   relations  to  a   single  one.  that  of  resem- 


THE    STUDY    OF    PSYCHOLOGY  33 

blance  or  diltercnce,  we  sliall  be  better  prepared  to  induce 
this  activity  of  thinking  than  if  we  had  no  clear  no- 
tions about  it.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  such  ideas  as 
are  expressed  by  the  words  "explain,"  and  "understand." 
We  say  that  we  wisli  our  children  to  understand  the 
things  we  are  teaching.  If  we  know  that  b}-  "under- 
stand" we  mean  to  perceive  the  relations  that  a  thing 
holds  to  something  eh.e  lliat  is  already  known,  then  we 
shall  be  better  pre])ared  l>  cause  our  children  to  under- 
stand than  if  we  ourselves  have  failed  to  obtain  a  clear 
notion  of  the  process  which  the  word  "understand"  ex- 
presses. The  same  thing  is  true  of  the  idea  expressed 
by  the  word  "explain."  \\"e  say  that  we  must  explain 
the  idea  in  the  lesson.  Hut  if  we  ourselves  do  not  know 
exactlv  what  we  mean  by  explain,  we  shall  have  diffi- 
cult\'  in  the  process.  When  we  know  that  by  explaining 
we  mean  the  pointing  out  of  the  relations  that  the 
thing  holfls  to  something  else  that  is  already  know'n,  we 
shall  accomplish  the  explanation  much  more  readily  and 
directlv.  It  is  not  likely  that  we  shall  get  an  adequate 
notion  of  thinking,  explaining,  and  understanding  with- 
out the  study  of  psychology. 

Psychology  Ncccssory  to  Understand  Educational 
Ideas.' — Tt  is  necessary  for  us  to  have  an  adequate  notion 
of  what  is  meant  by  interest,  apperception,  imitation, 
habit,  plav.  These  ideas  and  many  others  of  a  similar 
nature  are  involved  constantly  in  educational  discussions, 
especiallv  as  motives  to  study  and  to  behavior  in  school. 
We  need  to  have  as  clear  a  conception  as  possible  of  these 


34  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

notions,  and  such  a  conception  of  them  is  impossible 
without  a  knowledge  of  psychology.  Unless  we  approach 
them  through  and  by  means  of  psychology,  they  will  be 
to  us  mere  words  and  symbols,  utterly  unavailable  for 
use  in  producing  mental  activity  or  determining  proper 
behavior.  The  interests  and  feelings  constitute  the  mo- 
tives of  children,  and  we  cannot  understand  their  motives 
unless  we  have  a  knowledge  of  psychology. 

Psychology  Determines  Devices  Employed. — Our  de- 
vices are  determined  by  our  knowledge  of  psychology. 
We  cannot  avoid  the  employment  of  devices,  nor  would 
it  be  wise  to  do  so  if  w-e  could.  It  is  not  enough  that  we 
should  know  the  subject  and  the  laws  of  mental  action; 
there  must  be  some  way  of  bringing  the  subject  and  the 
mind  of  the  child  into  contact  with  each  other.  There 
must  be  some  method  of  procedure  by  which  a  desired 
mental  effect  may  be  produced  in  the  process  of  learn- 
ing. The  teacher  who  has  not  studied  psychology  is 
likely  to  see  only  the  device.  He  sees  somebody  teach 
by  the  word  method  ;  or  employ  some  plan  of  using  blocks 
in  teaching  square  root ;  or  adopt  some  way  of  using 
bundles  of  sticks  to  illustrate  the  decimal  notation,  or 
exploit  some  little  twist  in  map  drawing,  and  immediately 
he  thinks  that  this  is  the  one  and  only  way  to  teach  these 
subjects.  He  is  likely  to  be  tied  down  and  seriously  lim- 
ited bv  his  devices.  The  teacher  who  has  studied  psychol- 
ogy knows  that  the  aim  of  his  work  must  be  to  produce 
some  effect  upon  the  mind  of  the  child.  He  undertakes 
to  determine  what  mental  processes  must  be  induced  in 


THE    STUDY    OF    I'SYCIIOLOGY  35 

the  mind  of  the  cliild  to  produce  this  effect.  Then  he 
decides  how  the  subject  matter  may  be  employed  so  as 
to  produce  this  mental  activity  in  the  process  of  learn- 
ing. The  device,  to  him,  is  merely  a  plan  for  producing 
a  perviously  determined  mental  activity.  To  the  teacher 
who  has  not  studied  psychology,  the  device  is  a  way  of 
teaching  the  subject. 

Different  Effects  from  Learning  the  Same  Subject. — 
A  subject  may  be  so  taught  and  so  learned  as  to  produce 
one  effect,  or  another  effect.  A  child  who  is  directed 
to  learn  a  rule  in  arithmetic,  and  then  to  solve  problems 
by  applying  the  rule,  derives  a  very  different  effect  from 
the  learning  of  the  subject  than  does  one  who  is  taught 
to  solve  problems  by  perceiving  the  relations  existing 
between  the  quantities,  and  concludes  his  study  by  formu- 
lating a  rule.  A  pupil  who  learns  the  laws  of  falling 
bodies,  and  then  employs  an  Atwood's  machine  to  illus- 
trate the  laws,  or  to  see  that  they  arc  true,  derives  a  very 
different  effect  from  his  study  than  does  the  pupil  who 
is  set  to  work  to  determine  how  far  a  body  falls  in  one, 
two,  and  three  seconds  and  from  the  relations  which 
he  is  compelled  to  recognize  between  these  different 
spaces,  to  generalize,  and  to  state  a  law. 

Good  or  Bad  Devices. — The  effect  to  be  produced 
upon  the  mind  of  the  child  determines  the  device  to  be 
employed,  and  a  device  must  be  considered  good  or  bad, 
according  as  it  produces  or  does  not  produce  the  de- 
sired effect.  We  shall  produce  one  effect  or  another  in 
studying   the    same    subject    and    1)\-    learning    the    same 


36  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

facts  accordino;  as  we  use  one  or  another  device.  The 
psychological  effect  to  be  produced  determines  the  de- 
vice to  be  employed.  If  we  are  unacquainted  with 
psychology,  and  with  the  relations  of  mental  processes 
to  one  another,  we  shall  be  at  the  mercy  of  our  devices. 

A  Subject  Is  a  Construction  of  Thought. — In  the 
previous  chapter  it  was  stated  that  the  teacher  needs 
to  have  a  professional  knowledge  of  the  subject.  Such 
professional  knowledge  shows  how  the  mind  has  acted 
constructivel}-  in  building  up  a  system  of  thought.  The 
professional  knowledge  of  history  shows  how  the  mind  of 
man  has  operated  collectively  in  building  up  our  insti- 
tutional life;  while  such  knowledge  of  arithmetic,  shows 
how  the  mind  has  operated  in  building  up  the  system 
of  mathematical  conceptions  that  is  manifested  in  and 
through  the  subject.  The  professional  knowledge  of 
the  subject  must  manifest  the  method  of  thought  that 
runs  through  it.  The  thought  in  the  subject  and  the 
nature  of  the  mirid  determines  the  device  to  be  em- 
ployed. Hence  it  is  that  a  knowledge  of  psychology  is 
essential  to  the  successful  study  of  any  subject  as  a  pre- 
paration for  teaching. 

Effect  of  Learning  Different  Subjects. — A  knowledge 
of  psychology  will,  also,  enable  us  to  understand  the 
mental  processes  which  are  especially  prominent  in  learn- 
ing any  subject.  Some  subjects  may  be  used  more 
economically  than  others  in  producing  a  given  efifect  upon 
the  mind  and  character  of  a  child.  While  the  learning 
of  every  subject  involves  tlic  same  mental  processes,  the 


THE    STUDY   OF    PSYCHOLOGV  37 

(liffcrciu  subjects  vary  in  the  relative  amounl^  ^f  men- 
tal processes  that  are  demanded.  The  teacher  shotild 
know  what  subjects  can  be  employed  most  economically 
in  producing  desired  mental  effects.  He  must  kno\v  what 
the  mental  processes  are,  their  relations  to  each  other, 
and  how  they  are  manifested  in  the  learning  of  each 
subject. 

Economy  of  Effort  in  Learning. — In  learning,  certain 
mental  processes  are  always  involved.  There  can  be  no 
acquisition  of  knowledge  without  remembering.  Psy- 
chology shows  us  the  laws  of  remembering,  and  how  we 
may  apply  our  efforts  in  order  to  remember  most 
efficiently.  It  shovvS  us  that  in  order  to  remember  most 
successfully,  the  entire  lesson  to  be  remembered  should 
be  studied  as  a  whole,  and  not  studied  piece-meal.  It 
shows  us  also,  that  the  same  amount  of  energy  devoted 
to  studying,  accomplishes  a  greater  result  if  it  is  not 
expended  all  at  one  time,  but  that  it  should  be  broken 
up  into  several  intervals  of  study.  It  shows  us  that  our 
forgetting  is  most  rapid  in  the  first  few  hours  that  elapse 
after  the  thing  has  been  learned.  We  forget  nearly  half 
of  what  we  have  learned  in  the  first  six  hours  after  learn- 
ing it.  Especially  is  this  true  if  we  turn  immediately 
to  the  study  of  some  other  lesson,  or  engage  in  some 
other  occupation. 

Importance  of  Attention. — Psychology  shows  us  also 
what  attention  is,  and  the  very  great  importance  of  at- 
tention in  any  learning  process.  All  learning  processes 
depend  upon  attention,  and   without   it  no  education  is 


38  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

possible.  Attention  may  be  either  positive  or  negative, 
although  one  kind  involves  the  other.  Without  a  satis- 
factory knowledge  of  the  conditions  of  attention,  a  teacher 
will  find  it  impossible  to  achieve  the  best  results. 

Lazes  of  tJic  Learning  Process. — Psychology  shows 
us  that  the  process  of  learning  is  not  a  regular,  uni- 
form progression  in  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  or 
skill ;  but  that  there  are  intervals  of  rapid  improvement, 
alternating  with  periods  when  no  progress  is  observable. 
This  seems  to  be  inevitable,  and  is  recognized  in  every 
process  of  learning.  Unless  we  know  the  laws  of  the 
learning  process,  as  psychology  exhibits  them  to  us,  we 
shall  be  placed  at  a  serious  disadvantage  in  teaching. 

These  are  only  a  few  of  the  things  that  psychology 
has  for  us,  which  are  of  immediate  utility  in  teaching. 

Summary  of  the  Advantages  of  Psychology. — So  we 
see  that  for  all  these  things,  the  attaining  of  the  proper 
attitude  toward  teaching,  the  studying  of  the  nature  of 
the  children,  the  production  of  the  desired  kinds  of  ac- 
tivity, the  determination  of  the  devices  needed  to  pro- 
duce the  desired  effect,  the  proper  knowledge  of  the 
subject  that  will  enable  us  to  employ  it  eft'ectivelv, — 
for  all  these  things  it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher  shall 
have  made  a  careful  and  long  continued  study  of  psy- 
chology. 

Synopsis. 

1.  Psychology  is  not  a  system  of  rules  that  may  be 
applied  to  the  teaching  of  children. 

2.  A  knowledge  of  psychology  is  of  advantage  in 


THE   STUDY   OF    I'SYCIIOLOGY  39 

enabling  the  teacher  to  attain  a  proper  attitndc  of  mind 
toward  the  business  of  teaching. 

3.  It  is  a  prerequisite  to  the  sudy  of  children,  and 
to  a  comprehension  of  the  way  in  which  the  child's  mind 
acts,  grows  and  develops. 

4.  It  is  necessary  to  enable  us  to  recognize  the 
pedagogical  content  of  a  subject. 

5.  It  enables  us  to  attain  fundamental  notions 
of  such  processes  as  thinking,  explaining,  understand- 
ing. 

6.  It  can  give  us  some  positive  information  about 
the  processes  of  learning,  remembering,  forgetting,  and 
other  mental  activities. 


CHAPTER  III. 

Meaning  of  Education. 

Inherited  Characteristics. — When  a  child  is  born  it 
has  certain  inherited  characteristics.  It  has  tlie  human 
form,  two  eyes,  two  hands,  and  senses  that  belong  to  the 
human  race.  It  has  the  shape  of  features  and  the  pecu- 
liarities of  hair  and  of  eyes  derived  from  its  parents. 
Besides  these  characteristics  of  bodily  structure,  it  has 
tendencies  of  body  and  mind  that  will  enable  it  to 
grow  into  and  become  something  different  from  what 
it  is  at  birth.  This  combination  of  physical  characteris- 
tics and  inherited  tendencies  we  may  call  its  heredity. 
It  is  evident  that  no  part  of  this  heredity  is  education. 

The  Larger  Meaning  of  Education. — But  the  child 
may  have  its  growth  modified.  Every  experience  that 
it  has  leaves  it  something  different  from  what  it  was 
before  the  experience  affected  it.  This  modification  of 
growth  is  what,  in  the  broad  sense  of  the  word,  we  may 
designate  as  education.  Education,  then,  is  the  modifi- 
cation of  growth  resulting  from  the  child's  experiences. 
These  experiences  depend  upon  his  environment,  but 
environment  does  not  constitute  education.  The  child 
reacts  upon  his  environment,  and  it  is  this  reaction 
which  modifies  growth  and  constitutes  his  education.    We 

40 


.Mi:.\.\IX(;.    OI"    EDUCATION  41 

sometimes  hear  the  statement  that  what  a  person  is  at 
any  time  depends  upon  his  heredity  and  his  environment. 
It  is  more  nearly  the  truth  to  say  that  what  a  person  is  at 
any  time  depends  upon  his  heredity  and  his  education. 
The  environment  does  not  modify  the  person  unless  he 
reacts  upon  it. 

Education  Inevitable. — This  use  of  the  word  education 
is  the  larger  and  more  comprehensive  meaning  of  the 
term.  It  involves  some  curious  consequences.  One  con- 
sequence of  this  larger  meaning  of  the  term  is  that  every 
person  must  be  educated.  There  is  no  escape  from  the 
process.  Every  person  reacts  upon  his  environment,  and 
has  his  growth  modified  thereby.  Every  experience  pro- 
duces some  modification  of  the  individual's  growth  and 
this  modification  of  growth  constitutes  education  in  the 
larger  meaning  of  the  term. 

Education  a  Continuous  Process. — The  second  corol- 
larv  is  that  education  is  a  continuous  process.  It  begins 
at  birth  and  continues  as  long  as  the  individual  lives.  It 
is  not  something  that  can  be  begun  and  finished. 

Narrozi'cr  Mcaninrr  of  Education. — In  the  narrower 
use  of  the  word  education,  we  mean  the  process  by  which 
the  mental  and  moral  growth  of  the  child  is  modified  in 
school,  and  we  generally  use  the  word  in  this  limited 
sense.  While  this  is  really  too  restricted  a  use  of  the 
word,  it  is  very  natural  that  we  sh(juld  emjiloy  it,  for  the 
school  is  the  one  institution  which  the  community 
formally  establishes  and  sets  aside  for  the  purpose  of 
producing  modifications  in  the  mental  and  moral  growth 


42  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

of  children.  We  recognize  that  other  institutions,  the 
family,  home,  church,  government,  everything  contrib- 
utes to  their  education,  but  the  school  is  especially 
designed  for  that  purpose,  and  has  no  other  function.  It 
must  be  expected,  therefore,  to  produce  a  greater  efifect 
upon  the  growth  of  the  child  than  any  institution  that 
is  not  so  designed.  Hence  we  limit  the  word  education  to 
the  process  by  which  growth  is  modified  in  school. 

School,  the  Comuiunity  Ideal. — The  establishment  of 
the  school  implies  that  the  community  believes  it  possible 
to  modify  the  mental  growth  of  a  child  in  one  way  or 
another.  It  is  a  recognition  of  the  fact  that  the  child  may 
have  his  growth  modified  in  a  way  that  the  community 
believes  to  be  good,  or  in  another  way  that  it  believes  to 
be  bad.  The  community  establishes  a  school,  builds  a 
schoolhouse,  employs  the  teacher,  and  adopts  such  a 
course  of  study  as  it  believes  will  bring  about  the  kind 
of  growth  in  children  which  is  desirable.  Hence  we  may 
say  that  the  school  embodies  the  ideal  of  the  community. 
It  represents  the  ideal  that  the  community  holds  of  what 
the  individual  ought  to  become. 

Literal  Definition  of  Education. — We  are  now  ready 
to  consider  a  definition  of  education.  If  we  look  at  the 
literal  meaning  of  the  word,  we  shall  have  some  kind  of 
definition.  The  word  is  derived  from  two  Latin  words, 
e,  meaning  out,  and  duco,  I  lead.  The  thought  in  the 
word  is  that  education  is  the  leadino;  out,  or  the  drazinns:' 
out  of  the  powers  of  the  mind.  This  literal  meaning  of 
the  word  points  us  back  to  a  system  of  psychology  that 


Mi:A.\ixr,  OF  KorcATioN  43 

has  l)ccn  largely  discarded,  for  wc  now  speak  rather  of 
mental  processes  than  of  mental  powers.  If  the  word 
means  anvthing  in  its  literal  sense,  now,  it  means  that 
education  is  a  process  of  assisting-  in  the  mental  develop- 
ment of  man. 

Ucvclopiucnt  and  Brain  Actiz'ity. — 3.1cntal  develop- 
ment is  closely  parallel  to  the  development  of  brain  ac- 
tivities. \\'e  are  unable  to  state  positively  what  is  the 
connection  between  mind  and  body,  but  we  do  know 
enough  to  assert  without  anv  hesitation  that  for  every 
mental  process  there  is  a  corresponding  physiological 
change,  which  takes  the  form  of  the  transmission  of  a 
nervous  impulse  through  a  nervous  arc.  Every  time 
a  nervous  impulse  passes  through  a  nervous  arc 
it  facilitates  the  transmission  of  the  next  impulse.  Simi- 
larlv.  everv  mental  process,  such  as  is  involved  in  learn- 
ing, makes  it  easier  to  engender  the  next.  The  more  we 
learn  the  easier  the  process  of   learning  becomes. 

Education  as  Dci'clopnicnt. — The  child  has  at  birth  all 
the  brain  cells  that  it  will  ever  have.  There  are  probably 
as  manv  as  seven  hundred  million  cells  in  the  brain  of  a 
little  child,  nearlv  all  of  which  are  at  first  undeveloped. 
The  cells  are  small  and  have  no  dendrites  or  cell  branches, 
and  thev  are  incapable  of  transmitting  or  originating 
nervous  impulses.  They  have  not  formed  connections 
with  other  brain  cells,  nor  become  organized  into  brain 
centers.  Xervous  impulses  are  started  in  the  sense 
organs,  and  transmitted  along  the  nerves  to  the  brain 
cells.     As  a  result  of  repeated  attempts  of  successive  ini- 


44  I'kJN'ciii.F.s  OF  ti:aciiing 

|mlsc>  to  pass  tlmiu-li  llic  l)rain  cells,  tlic  cells  become 
(K'\eliii)e(!,  dendrites  'j^vkw  out,  cuHneetioiis  with  dllier 
cells  are  estal)lislie<l.  and  hrain  centers  are  tornied.  In 
this  way  we  can  ])ictnre  to  ourseK'Cs  the  physioloj^ical 
changes  which  are  jiarallel  to  the  mental  develoi)ment. 
Education  produces  this  kind  of  development  in  the  brain 
cells  bv  furnishing  the  proper  kind  of  experiences,  and  by 
establishing  nervous  impulses  which  are  carried  through 


Education    as   Development. 


FoL'K  Neurons. 
A    and    C.   from    the   cerebellum;    B,    from    the    spinal   cord;    D, 
from  the   cerebrum;   a.  the  axon.     The  cells  A    and  D  are 
stained  so   that  the  main  body  .md  tlic  dendrites   arc  black: 
B  and  C  show  the  nucleus. 

brain  centers  that  would  otherwise  be  untraversed.    De- 
velopment, then,  is  really  one  of  the  elements  of  educa- 


MEAMNc;    UK    KDUCATION  45 

tion.  and  anv  statement  of  education  must  take  this  ele- 
ment into  account. 

Education  as  .hIjustDicnt. —  I'.ut  development  is  not 
the  onlv  element  in  education,  in  order  that  the  child 
may  develop  it  must  live.  The  child  must  learn  how  to 
obtain  food,  clothing  and  shelter,  and  how  to  avoid  dan- 
gers tliat  threaten  his  existence.  These  things  constitute 
portions  of  his  environment  and  furnish  opportunities  for 
experiences  by  means  of  which  he  becomes  developed. 
This  is  a  process  of  adaptation  or  of  adjustment  to  his 
environment.  The  child  must  learn  to  live  in  his  en- 
vironment and  constantly  needs  to  adjust  himself  to  it. 
Life  itself  is  an  adjustment  of  the  internal  conditions  of 
the  individual  to  the  outer  circumstances  of  his  environ- 
ment. Environment  includes  not  merely  the  natural  and 
physical  surroundings  of  the  child,  but  the  social  com- 
munitv  with  all  its  manners,  customs,  traditions,  institu- 
tions and  history  in  which  he  finds  himself  placed.  He 
must  learn  of  all  these  circumstances,  and  how-  to  conform 
his  own  life  to  them. 

Education  a  Cliaiii^c  from  Dependent  to  Independent. 
— There  are  almost  as  man}  definitions  of  education  as 
there  are  persons  who  have  written  about  it.  Let  us  see 
what  must  enter  into  any  satisfactory  definition.  The 
child  is  at  first  a  completely  dependent  individual.  With- 
out the  aid  of  other  persons,  no  child  could  survive  the 
first  few  davs.  or  ihc  first  few  years  of  childhood.  T>y 
the  process  of  education  he  is  changed  from  a  dependent 
to    an    independent    being.      This    must    enter    into    our 


46  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

definition,  for  it  is  b}-  the  process  of  education  that  this 
change  occurs.  Education,  then,  is  the  process  by  which 
a  child  is  changed  from  a  dependent  to  an  independent 
being. 

Ediicatioii  a  Change  from  Egoistic  to  Altniistk 
Being. — But  this  is  not  all.  At  first,  the  child  is  a  per- 
fectly egoistic  being,  and  has  no  regard  for  other  persons. 
His  only  business  is  to  live  and  he  makes  everything  else 
contribute  to  that  end.  He  has  no  consideration  for 
anybody  except  himself.  He  must  change  from  the  con- 
dition of  an  egoistic  to  that  of  an  altruistic  being,  who 
will  regard  the  rights  of  others.  This  change  is  brought 
about  by  the  process  of  education.  Education,  then,  is 
the  process  by  which  a  child  is  changed  from  a  dependent, 
egoistic  being  to  an  independent,  altruistic  being. 

Education  a  Change  from  Self-Centered  to  Social 
Attitnde. — But  the  child  is  also  self-centered.  He  regards 
everything  from  his  own  standpoint.  He  looks  at  every- 
thing in  the  light  of  its  effect  upon  himself.  He  must 
change  from  this  view-point  to  one  in  which  he  may 
consider  matters  in  the  light  of  their  eft'ect  upon  the 
entire  community  of  which  he  is  a  part.  He  must  regard, 
not  merely  the  rights  of  an  individual,  even  though  that 
individual  be  some  other  than  himself,  but  he  nuist  regard 
the  rights  of  the  community.  He  must  change  from  a 
self-centered  being  to  a  social  being.  This  change  is 
brought  about  by  the  process  of  education.  Hence  we 
may  say  that  education  is  the  process  by  which  a  child 
is  changed  from  a  dependent,  egoistic,  self-centered  being-, 
t<i  an  independent,  altruistic,  social  being. 


MEANIXG    OF    EDUCATION'  47 

It  is  by  the  process  of  education  thus  described,  that 
the  child  becomes  adjusted  to  his  environment  and  de- 
veloped as  an  individual. 

Synopsis. 
1.  Education  may  be  used  with  two  different  mean- 
ings, the  broader  and  the  narrower.  In  the  broader 
meaning  of  the  word,  it  is  the  tntal  change  that  is  pro- 
duced in,  the  child's  growth  by  his  experiences.  In  the 
narrow  sense  of  the  word,  it  is  the  change  that  is  pro- 
duced in  his  growth  1)y  his  experiences  in  school. 

2.  Education  includes  two  elements,  development  and 
adjustment. 

3.  Education  is  the  process  by  which  a  child  is 
changed  from  a  dependent,  egoistic,  self-centered  being 
to  an  independent,  altruistic,  social  being. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

What  Education  Does  for  the  Child. 

A  Boy's  Objections  to  Going  to  School. — We  have 
many  discussions  of  education  from  the  view-point  of  the 
teacher,  the  philosopher,  or  of  tlie  community,  but  few 
from  that  of  the  child.  We  wish  to  look  at  it,  if  possible, 
as  a  child  who  has  not  attended  school  very  much  looks 
at  it,  to  see  what  answer  we  may  make,  if  any,  to  the 
objections  that  a  boy  sometimes  raises  to  attendance  upon 
school.  This  is  a  problem  that  every  teacher  must  some 
time  in  his  teaching  exoerience  confront. 

Successful  Uneducated  Men. — The  problem  sometimes 
arises  from  the  objection  of  a  boy  who  refuses  to  go  to 
school  claiming  that  education  is  of  no  value,  and  point- 
ing as  an  illustration  of  its  inutility  to  the  example  of 
some  eminently  successful  man  who  never  attended 
school,  or  wh(^  attended  so  short  a  time  as  not  to  be  en- 
titled to  rank  with  educated  persons.  He  may  also  point 
to  the  example  of  some  college  graduate  who  is  now 
working  at  twenty-five  dollars  a  week  or  twenty-five 
dollars  a  month  for  the  uneducated,  successful  man. 
Sometimes  it  takes  the  form  of  an  objection  on  the  part 
of  the  parent  to  sending  his  children  to  school,  or  an 
objection  to  the  payment  of  taxes,  claiming  that  it  in- 
vades personal  liberty.     What  shall  we  say  to  such  a  boy 


or  man  ? 


48 


WHAT    ICDUCATION    DOES  4^ 

Objections  to  l\trticidar  Subjects. — Sometimes  the 
objection  that  the  boy  makes  is  an  objectii)n  to  studying' 
a  particular  subject,  such  as  grammar,  wliich  subject  is 
sometimes  very  unpopular  with  boys ;  or  it  may  be  geogra- 
phy, which  is  sometimes  equah)-  unpopular.  Girls  in 
high  schools  frequently  have  an  objection  to  the  study 
of  zoology  or  chemistry,  and  when  this  is  the  case  they 
are  unable  to  see  that  there  is  any  advantage  in  such 
study.  Sometimes  the  problem  arises  in  the  objection 
of  an  eminently  successful  man  to  the  study  of  a  par- 
ticular subject.  A  circuit  judge  once  said  to  the  writer, 
"What  is  the  use  of  studying  algebra?  It  will  never  be 
of  any  use  to  you.  It  is  a  mere  juggling  with  figures, 
and  has  no  application  to  practical  affairs."  The  assump- 
tion was  that  since  he  had  become  a  successful  man,  had 
been  a  member  of  the  legislature,  been  elected  circuit 
judge,  been  a  candidate  for  congress,  algebra  was  not  a 
help,  or  rather,  the  lack  of  it  was  no  hindrance  to  suc- 
cess in  his  profession. 

Hozv  Anszecr  Objections. — The  practical  problem  is. 
How  shall  we  answer  these  objections?  What  can  we 
say  to  the  persons  who  raise  them?  May  there  not  be, 
in  the  objections  they  raise,  something  of  truth  which  it 
is  well  for  us  to  consider?  It  is  not  enough  merely  to  be 
convinced  ourselves  of  the  value  of  an  education,  im- 
portant as  such  conviction  may  be ;  but  it  will  conduce 
to  clearness  in  our  own  view  if  we  are  able  to  make  it 
clear  to  others. 

Fe7V  Teachers  Ready,  to  Answer. — Nearly  all  teachers 


so  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

went  to  school  because  tlieir  parents  said  that  they  should 
go,  and  attendance  at  school  was  a  matter  of  course  with 
them.  Consequently  few  teachers  have  really  determined 
the  fundamental  principles  upon  which  universal  educa- 
tion is  justified.  The  objections  raised  will  furnish  us 
an  opportunity  to  think  carefully  about  the  matter.  It  is 
necessary  for  us  to  know  the  real  value  to  the  child, 
not  to  the  state,  of  attendance  upon  school,  so  that  we 
may  be  able  to  present  the  argument  in  an  effective  way 
to  him. 

The  Money  Argument. — There  is  one  argument  that 
will  appeal  to  some  men  who  can  be  reached  by  no  other ; 
that  is  the  argument  from  the  increased  earning  power 
of  the  educated  man.  A  farmers'  institute  not  long  ago 
adopted  a  declaration  that  a  school  training  above  the 
elementary  school  unfitted  a  boy  to  become  a  farmer. 
Therefore,  if  it  is  desired  to  keep  a  boy  on  the  farm, 
and  to  make  a  farmer  out  of  him.  he  must  not  go  to  school 
beyond  the  time  required  to  learn  the  elementary  school 
subjects.  Such  persons  may  be  reached  by  the  doUar-and- 
cents  argument.  Perhaps  an  apology  is  needed  for  pre- 
senting this  argument,  since  it  may  seem  to  bring  educa- 
tion down  to  a  basis  purely  mercenary,  and  to  take  away 
from  it  something  of  the  higher  character  that  belongs  to 
it.  It  is  believed,  however,  that  the  argument  is  a  valid 
one,  and  fully  justified  by  our  definition. 

Justified  by  Our  Definition. — We  have  said  that  edu- 
cation is  a  process  by  which  a  child  is  changed  from  a 
dependent  to  an  independent  being.     We  have  seen  that 


WHAT    EDUCATION    DOES  51 

education  is  an  adjustment  of  the  individual  to  the  cir- 
cumstances in  which  he  is  placed.  Education  is  the 
process  by  which  the  individual  becomes  adjusted.  An 
individual  is  not  adjusted  to  his  environment  unless  he  is 
able  to  make  a  living  in  the  place  in  which  he  is  situated, 
and  he  cannot  be  an  independent  being  unless  he  is  able 
ta  support  himself.  A  man  who  is  dependent  upon  the 
community  for  his  support  and  must  live  in  the  poor- 
house  or  be  supported  by  the  community  in  some  other 
v/ay,  is  not  independent,  and  is  not  educated,  no  matter 
how  long  he  may  have  attended  school.  So  an  educated 
man  must  be  able  to  make  a  living,  or  must  be  able  to  make 
a  better  living  than  he  could  make  if  he  were  not  educa- 
ted. The  former  notion,  that  education  had  nothing  to  do 
with  making  a  living,  no  doubt  grew  out  of  the  leisure 
class  idea  exemplified  in  education.  Let  us  see  if  we  can 
show  that  education  is  really  of  advantage  in  making  a 
living,  and  if  it  has  really  a  money  value. 

Money  Value  of  a  Man. — How  much  is  a  man  worth  ? 
This  seems  a  foolish  question,  since  "All  that  a  man  hath 
will  he  give  for  his  life."  But  courts  are  called  upon 
every  day  to  fix  the  value  of  a  human  life  in  cases  where 
a  man  has  been  killed  by  a  railroad  or  other  corporation. 
The  legislature  of  Illinois,  at  one  time,  fixed  the  sum  of 
five  thousand  dollars  as  the  largest  amount  that  a  corpora- 
tion should  be  called  upon  to  pay  for  the  killing  of  a 
man.  After  a  while,  juries  and  courts  ventured  to  assess 
damages  of  ten  thousand  or  fifteen  thousand  or  twenty 
thousand  dollars  for  the  loss  of  an  arm  or  a  leg,  while 


52  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

they  were  permitted  to  assess  not  more  than  hve  thou- 
sand for  the  loss  of  Hfe.  All  this  tends  to  show  that  a 
man's  arm  or  leg  is  worth  more  than  his  head,  which 
may  be  true  if  he  is  a  football  player  or  a  baseball  pitcher, 
but  not  in  other  circumstances.  The  amount  allowed  as 
the  maximum  for  a  life  was  subsequently  raised  to  ten 
thousand,  but  this  shows  that  legislatures  believe  it  possi- 
ble to  put  a  value  upon  the  life  of  a  man. 

Value  of  the  People. — It  seems  reasonable  to  make  an 
estimate  of  the  value  of  a  man  upon  the  basis  of  his 
earning  power.  The  census  of  1890  showed  that  the 
total  cost  of  living  in  the  United  States  was  about  thirteen 
billion  dollars  a  year.  This  must  be,  then,  about  the 
amount  of  wealth  produced  each  year,  for  there  is  never 
a  very  large  surplus  in  any  one  year  to  be  passed  to  the 
credit  side  of  accumulated  wealth.  The  number  of  people 
in  the  United  States  was  about  76  million,  and  this 
amount  means  that  on  the  average,  every  man,  woman 
and  child  in  the  United  States  produced  about  $171.00 
each  year.  A  person  who  is  capable  of  earning  $171.00  in 
a  year,  reckoning  money  at  five  per  cent,  is  worth  about 
twenty  times  $171.00.  or  $3,420.00.  :\Tultiplying  this 
amount  by  76  million  we  shall  see  that  on  the  basis  of 
their  earning  power,  the  entire  population  was  worth 
about  260  billion  dollars.  When  we  compare  this  amount 
with  the  total  assessed  valuation  of  the  property  of  the 
country,  which  at  tliat  time  was  about  25  billion  dollars. 
Ave  shall  find  that  the  people  of  the  country  were  worth 
niorf  than  leu  linu's  the  lotal  assessed  \alnation  of  the 
]'ropert>'  of  flic  country. 


WllAl'    llirc APIOX    DOKS  53 

Kill  llic  a^.^c■^s^.'(l  \;iliiali(iii  ui  llic  prtjpcily  t)l  lln' 
Country  is  prohahh  iidl  iimrc  than  four-tenths  ol  llic 
real  value.  Tlii.s  would  niakx'  the  real  valuation  of  the 
l)ro])erty  of  the  country  ahout  05  hillion  dollars,  and  the 
people,  on  this  hasis,  would  still  he  worth  more  than  three 
times  the  total  value  of  the  property  of  the  country. 

The  People  the  Real  Jl'ealfh  of  the  Country. — Since 
1890  conditions  have  changed.  The  population  of  the 
country  has  increased  about  ten  millions,  the  earning 
power  has  increased  about  fift}-  per  cent,  the  total  assessed 
valuation  of  the  property  is  now  about  7b  billions,  and  the 
real  value  not  far  from  200  billions.  Calculations  will 
show  that,  based  upon  earning  power,  the  people  of  the 
country  are  worth  about  440  billions,  which  is  nearly  six 
times  the  total  assessed  valuation  of  the  property,  and 
more  than  twice  the  real  value  of  the  property.  This 
calculation  serves  to  show  that  it  is  the  people  who  con- 
stitute the  real  wealth  of  the  country. 

Money  Value  of  Education. — How  much  of  this  value 
is  due  to  education  ?  It  is  possible  to  show  that  about 
seven-eighths  of  the  value  of  the  people  comes  from  tlic 
education  which  they  receive  in  school.  But  let  us  make 
a  very  liberal  estimate,  and  say  that  one-half  of  this 
value  of  the  people  is  due  to  education.  That  makes  the 
value  of  the  people  which  is  derived  from  educational 
processes  amount  to  about  220  billion  dollars.  In  order  to 
derive  this  value,  for  the  people  of  a  country,  a  whole 
generation  must  be  educated.  The  education  of  the 
people  must  be  continued  for  a  pcriorl  of  about  thirty- 


54  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

three  years,  which  is  approximately  the  Hfetime  of  one 
generation.  Wt  are  now  spending  in  this  country  for 
educational  processes  about  235  million  dollars  a  year. 
In  thirty-three  years  this  amounts  to,  approximately,  eight 
billion  dollars.  We  invest  in  the  education  of  one  gen- 
eration of  people  about  eight  billion  dollars,  and  we  derive 
from  it  an  increase  in  the  value  of  the  people  of  about 
220  billion  dollars.  We  put  eight  dollars  into  education, 
and  draw  out,  in  increased  value,  220  dollars.  For  every 
dollar  that  we  invest  in  education  there  is  an  increased 
value  of  27  dollars  to  the  people.  This  looks  like  a 
pretty  good  investment.  Although  these  figures  are  only 
approximate,  and  there  may  be  considerable  error  in 
them,  still  the  calculations  show  the  nature  and  magni- 
tude of  the  interest  with  which  we  are  dealing. 

Money  Value  of  Education  to  the  Individual. — But 
our  objector  may  not  be  impressed  by  figures  that  apply 
to  the  whole  country,  and  may  even  question  the  moderate 
estimate  that  one-half  the  value  and  earning  power  of 
the  people  is  derived  from  school  education.  He  may 
demand  something  more  specific,  which  will  apply  directly 
to  his  own  case.  How  much  is  education  worth  to  the 
individual  directly?  Superintendent  Schaefifer  figures  it 
out  in  this  way.  He  says  that  in  the  part  of  Pennsylva- 
nia in  which  he  lives,  a  man  who  is  wholly  uneducated, 

I  capable  of  doing,  only  the  lowest  grade  of  work,  which 

demands   the  least   amount  of   intelligence,   calling  only 

I!  for  the  exercise  of  muscle,  is  able  to  earn  about  $150.00 

a  vear.    A  man  who  is  capable  of  earning  $150.00  a  year 


WHAT    EDUCATION   DOES  00 

has  in  himself  a  capitalized  value  of  $3,000.00.  If  he 
had  $3,000.00  and  should  put  it  out  at  interest  at  hve 
per  cent,  it  would  bring  the  same  income  that  he  now 
earns  by  his  labor. 

J'altic  of  School  Attendance  Per  Day. — Statistics 
show  that  the  average  earnings  of  a  college  graduate 
in  this  country  are  about  $1,200.00  a  year.  A  man  who 
is  able  to  earn  $1,200.00  a  year  has  in  himself  a  capitalized 
value  of  $24,000.00.  The  difference,  the  only  dift'erence 
that  we  have  considered,  is  the  difference  derived  from 
attendance  upon  school  sufficiently  to  graduate  from  col- 
lege. This  dift"erence  is  $21,000.00  which  the  college 
education  has  added  to  the  value  of  the  man.  If  we 
assume  that  the  school  year  is  200  days  long,  and  that 
there  are  eight  years  in  the  elementary  grades,  four  years 
in  the  high  school  and  four  years  in  college,  this  would 
require  an  attendance  uj^on  school  3.200  days.  But  no 
one  ever  does  attend  school  3,200  days  in  order  to  gradu- 
ate from  college.  Perhaps  2,000  days  is  sufficient  time 
for  accomplishing  that  result  under  favorable  circum- 
stances. Two  thousand  days'  attendance  upon  school  re- 
sults in  an  increased  cai)italized  value  to  the  individual 
of  $21,000.00.  This  means  that  the  time  of  the  pupil  in 
going  to  school  is  worth  anywhere  from  ten  and  a  half 
dollars  a  day,  on  the  two  thousand-day  basis,  to  six  dollars 
and  a  half  on  the  thirty-two  hundred-day  basis.  Yet  we 
all  know  many  parents  who  have  kept  their  children  out 
of  school  for  a  much  less  sum  of  money  than  ten  dollars 
and  a  half  a  dav. 


56  I'RIXCIPLES   OF    TEACIIIXG 

Three  Conditions  .\  ccessary.—  nus  calculation  as- 
sumes three  things:  First,  that  the  child  is  capable  of 
profiting  by  an  educational  opportunity.  It  assumes  that 
he  is  not  feeble-minded,  although  states  find  that  it  is 
profitable  to  educate  feeble-minded  children  in  special 
institutions,  at  a  much  greater  expense  than  is  necessary 
for  normal  children.  So  perhaps  this  limitation  ought 
not  to  be  mentioned.  It  certainly  is  true  that  unless  the 
child  conforms  to  the  regulations  that  the  school  imposes, 
learns  his  lessons,  obeys  the  rules,  and  does  as  he  is 
expected  to  do,  this  increase  in  value  is  not  derived  from 
attendance  upon  school. 

/  '(7///^  of  Good  Tcaeliiiiii. — The  second  assumption  is 
that  the  teaching  shall  be  of  the  right  kind.  If  the 
teaching  is  poor,  it  is  not  possible  for  the  children  to 
derive  anvthing  like  this  amount  of  value  from  attendance 
upon  school.  This  is  the  justification  for  demanding  the 
best  teachers  that  can  be  obtained.  If  the  teaching  is 
poor,  not  only  will  little  value  be  added  to  the  individual, 
but  there  mav  be  a  positive  detriment  to  the  child.  If 
it  is  possible  for  a  good  teacher  to  add  to  the  capitalized 
value  of  his  pupils  anything  like  ten  dollars  and  a  half 
a  dav,  an  increase  of  $450.00  a  day  in  a  school  of  forty 
pujjils.  while  the  jxtor  teacher  can  bring  about  no  increase 
in  value  to  the  pui)ils,  then  it  will  be  i'eadily  seen  that  the 
difference  in  salar>  needed  to  secure  a  good  teacher  and 
that  required  to  secure  a  poor  teacher  is  completely 
negligible. 

Money  lvalue  of  Different  Subjects. — The  third  thing 


WHAT    EDUCATION    DOES  57 

is  that  the  subjects  taught  shall  be  of  the  proper  kind 
for  giving  this  increased  valuation.  It  makes  a  difiference 
what  subjects  are  taught.  If  earning  power  is  the  end 
of  education  that  is  sought,  then  subjects  may  be  selected 
that  will  contribute  largely  to  this  result.  Earning  power 
is  very  largely  the  result  of  education. 

Industrial  Efficiency  and  Leisure  Class  Education. — 
There  are  two  general  principles  underlying  the  selection 
of  subjects  for  study.  One  principle  may  be  called  that 
of  Industrial  Efficiency,  and  the  other  may  be  called  the 
Leisure  Class  Principle.  Some  subjects  taught  in  school 
contribute  to  industrial  efficiency,  or  earning  power,  and 
other  subjects  have  no  relation  to  such  increase.  Some 
persons  prefer  leisure  class  education,  which  is  expressed 
by  saying  that  the  pupil  learns  those  things  that  a  gentle- 
man ought  to  know.  Leisure  class  education  may  not  con- 
tribute directly  to  earning  power,  and  the  examples  of 
educated  men  who  are  unsuccessful  in  making  a  living 
are  men  who  have  received  leisure  class  education.  The 
difficulty  lies  in  confusing  the  two  principles  under  the 
one  term,  education. 

Money  J'alue  of  Industrially  Efficient  Education. — 
In  our  statistics  showing  that  the  earning  power  of  col- 
lege graduates  is  $1,200.00  a  year,  no  distniction  has  been 
made  between  different  kind^  of  colleges.  It  will  be  found 
that  technical  schools  in  which  students  are  trained  in 
some  particular  line  of  industrially  efficient  work  enable 
their  graduates  to  earn  more  money  than  do  colleges  whose 
aim  i'^  to  give  a  general  education.     One  of  our  technical 


58  PRINCirLES   OF    TEACHING 

colleges  recently  collected  statistics  from  the  members  of 
a  class  that  was  graduated  ten  years  before.  Of  the  180 
members  of  the  class,  151  replied.  The  average  earning 
power  of  the  151  members  was  $3,107.00  a  year,  which 
is  much  greater  than  the  average  of  graduates  from  all 
kinds  of  colleges.  If  our  education  is  of  the  leisure  class 
kind,  the  boy  who  objects  to  it,  saying  that  it  does  not 
contribute  to  his  success  in  industrial  occupations,  is* 
right. 

Hoiv  Anszvcr  Objections. — Let  us  answer  the  objec- 
tions fairly  and  squarely.  Let  us  not  befog  the  answer, 
nor  shrink  from  his  question.  It  may  be  that  there  is 
much  of  value  in  the  objections,  for  both  the  teacher  and 
the  school,  and  we  may  learn  much  from  trying  to  an- 
swer them. 

Let  us  suppose  that  a  boy  lives  in  a  rural  district, 
and  already  knows  that  he  intends  to  become  a  farmer. 
What  shall  we  say  to  him  when  he  asserts  that  school 
work  contains  nothing  that  will  help  him  to  make  a  living 
by  farming,  or  that  will  help  him  to  become  a  better 
farmer  than  he  \\  ould  become  without  going  to  school  ? 

Tlic  Successful  Uneducated  Man  an  Exception. — In 
the  first  place,  we  can  point  out  the  fact  that  where  there 
is  one  man  who  has  become  wealthy  and  attained  a  posi- 
tion of  honor  and  respect  in  the  community  without  the 
advantages  of  education,  there  are  hundreds  of  men 
equallv  deficient  in  education  who  have  not  made  a  success 
in  life  and  who  have  not  attained  wealth  and  position. 
The   one   successful   man   is   an   exception.     The  larger 


WHAT  i:ducation  does  :>y 

nnnibcr  of  men  who  have  made  a  success  of  their  Hves 
are  men  who  have  had  tlie  advantages  of  education.  With 
a  eiven  number  of  men  the  chances  of  making  the  kind  of 
success  in  Hfe  that  he  desires  is  considerably  greater  for 
the  educated  than  for  the  uneducated  man.  The  un- 
educated man  finds  himself  confronted  by  very  serious 
limitations  that  the  educated  man  does  not  feel.  More 
than  this,  no  one  has  ever  said  that  education  is  a 
hindrance,  while  many  persons  without  education  assert 
that  education  would  have  been  an  advantage  to  them. 

Tiic  Adz'antageous  Subjects  in  School. — In  the  sec- 
ond place  we  may  point  out  to  the  boy  that  there  are 
many  things  in  school  work  which  are  of  direct  benefit  to 
him  in  his  farming  operations.  Besides  reading  and 
writing,  we  may  show  that  the  processes  of  arithmetic 
and  denominate  numbers  are  indispensable  to  him. 
Weighing,  measuring,  and  calculations  with  denominate 
numbers  will  be  admitted  as  helpful  by  the  boy  himself. 
If  the  things  that  we  teach  in  arithmetic  are  not  of  such 
a  nature  as  to  make  them  serviceable  to  the  boy  in  his 
work,  then  it  is  the  ])art  of  wisdom  to  change  them  in 
such  a  way  that  they  will  become  so.  The  principles  of 
arithmetic  may  l)e  illustrated  as  well  by  one  set  of  prob- 
lems as  by  another.  There  is  no  reason  why  we  should 
teach  denominate  numbers  except  that  they  represent  a 
common  kind  of  utility.  We  may  make  our  arithmetic 
work  all  of  such  a  nature  tliat  it  will  be  directly  servicea- 
ble, without  detracting  from  its  culture  value,  or  failing 
to  teach  the  fundamental  principles  of  mathematics. 


60  I'klXt  Il'LF.S   UF    TF.ALllIXC. 

Ecoiioiitic  .  iilicintir^c  i>j'  Sciriuc. — TIku  wf  can  puinl 
to  tlic  fact  that  the  knowledge  of  i)lant  hfe,  plant  growth, 
weeds,  fertilization,  and  other  things  that  constitute  the 
subject  matter  of  nature  study,  or  elements  of  agriculture, 
are  directly  useful  to  him  in  his  business.  The  facts  of 
animal  life,  the  economic  importance  of  insects  and  earth- 
worms, the  elements  of  chemistry,  which  may  be  taught 
in  any  school,  are  indispensable  to  any  kind  of  success 
in  farming  above  the  lowest.  So  the  objection  that  is 
raised  may  contain  enough  of  truth  to  make  it  exceed- 
ingly important  to  us.  We  may  find  it  necessary  to 
modify  our  courses  of  study  to  meet  the  objections  of  the 
boy,  for  certainly  the  kind  of  education  that  does  not 
contain  an  appeal  to  every  boy  is  not  the  kind  of  educa- 
tion that  will  conform  to  our  definition. 

Adc'antai^c  of  Other  Subjects. — When  we  arc  able  to 
show  that  school  work  does  contain  some  things  that  will 
be  of  service  to  the  boy,  then  we  are  ready  to  show  that  it 
is  well  for  him  to  learn  something  that  does  not  now 
appear  to  him  as  likely  to  be  serviceable  in  the  occupa- 
tion that  he  has  chosen.  We  can  show  him  that  there  are 
things  taught  in  school  which  people  generally  have 
found  to  be  helpful  in  the  atTairs  of  life  even  though 
their  immediate  utility  cannot  be  easily  seen.  The  loyalty 
of  the  most  perverse  boy  may  thus  be  enlisted  and  his 
interest  in  school  work  aroused.  Interest,  we  shall  see, 
is  the  feeling  arising  from  the  recognition  of  the  relation 
existinsf  between  the  thing  to  which  we  are  attending  and 
ourselves.     We  shall  need  to  search  for  this  relation  be- 


WHAT    EDUCATION    JJUES  61 

twccn  the  thing-  we  teach  and  the  Hfe  the  boy  is  to  lead, 
and  (.Hseover  ht)w  to  make  it  ai)parent.  Unless  it  can  be 
shown  to  exist,  we  have  little  reason  for  teaching  the 
subjects  that  now  make  up  our  curriculum. 

I'r  redo  III  from  Limitations. — lUit  there  is  a  second 
reason  for  attending  school  that  cannot  be  open  to  the 
charge  of  being  mercenary.  There  is  a  difiference  be- 
tween the  educated  antl  tlie  uneducated  man.  The  unedu- 
cated man  finds  himself  limited  in  a  way  that  the  educated 
man  does  not.  W'e  are  pressed  upon  on  all  sides  by  our 
limitations.  The  soul  struggles  to  be  free.  Freedom  is 
the  first  demand  that  the  soul  makes. 

'I'hc  Limitations  in  Tunc. — We  are  limited  in  time. 
Our  years  of  conscious  life  begin  with  our  earliest  recol- 
lections, and  continue  as  long  as  we  live.  We  strive 
desperately  to  surpass  these  limits,  and  to  discover  what 
will  happen  tomorrow,  or  next  week,  or  next  year.  In 
default  of  any  other  method  of  revealing  the  future, 
manv  persons  consult  fortune  tellers,  and  dream  books 
as  a  forlorn  hope.  Perhaps  it  is  this  desire  for  freedom 
that  lies  at  the  foundation  of  the  soul's  demand  for  im- 
mortality and  a  life  after  death.  The  United  States  gov- 
ernment is  expending  thousands  of  dollars  every  year  in 
the  attempt  to  remove  the  limits  of  time  in  the  future 
for  twentv-four  or  forty-eight  hours,  and  to  discover  what 
the  weather  will  be.  All  of  us  think  the  money  is  wisely 
expended. 

Limits  of  f'lisl  Lime. — We  are  more  successful  in 
pushing  back  the  liinil^  n]   lime   in   the  past.      \)\    means 


62  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

of  the  processes  of  education  we  can  learn  about  the 
heroes  of  the  olden  time.  We  can  know  of  George  Wash- 
ington and  the  men  who  founded  the  colonies.  We  can 
live  in  some  degree  in  the  time  of  Columbus,  and  ex- 
perience something  of  the  exaltation  of  spirit  that  his 
discoveries  brought  about.  We  can  watch  the  process 
by  which  the  institutions  of  political  government  became 
established,  and  know  of  the  struggle  of  King  John  with 
his  barons  at  Runnymede.  We  can  live  in  the  old  Roman 
and  Grecian  days,  and  can  watch  the  building  of  the 
pyramids  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  We  can  go  farther 
back  even  than  this,  and  can  learn  from  the  sun-dried 
bricks  of  Babylon  and  Assyria.  We  can  learn  of  the  cave- 
men in  France,  and  from  a  knowledge  of  the  flint  imple- 
ments of  the  Indians  we  can  reconstruct  in  part  the  life 
that  these  primitive  people  lived.  Just  in  so  far  as  we  are 
able  to  do  this,  we  can  take  into  our  own  lives  something 
of  the  life  that  they  lived,  and  add  to  our  own  experi- 
ences something  of  the  experiences  which  they  had.  Thus 
we  add  to  the  quantity  of  human  life  through  the  pro- 
cesses of  education,  without  increasing  our  length  of 
years.  Life  is  not  merely  linear.  It  has  breadth  and 
unsuspected  depths. 

TJic  Limifatioiis  in  S/^occ. — W'c  are  limited  by  space. 
The  processes  of  education  enable  us  in  ]iart  to  remove 
these  limits.  Were  it  not  for  this  possibility  we  should 
never  be  able  to  see  more  of  the  earth  than  we  can  walk 
around.  By  the  processes  of  education  we  learn  to  Imild 
ships  and  railroads  which  carry  us  swiftly  to   far  por- 


WHAT    EDUCATION    DOES  63 

tions  of  the  earth.  By  reading  hooks  of  geography  and 
travel,  we  are  ahle  to  understand  something  of  the  nature 
of  the  countries  that  we  may  never  hope  to  visit,  and 
to  take  into  our  own  hves  something  of  what  we  read 
ahout  there.  We  can  read  in  the  morning  paper  of  events 
that  have  happened  in  different  parts  of  the  earth,  and 
this  is  hkewise  the  removal  of  the  limits  of  space.  Just 
in  so  far  as  we  are  able  to  do  this,  we  enlarge  our  lives 
and  make  them  fuller  and  richer.  We  live  more  in  the 
years  of  our  life  than  it  would  be  possible  for  us  to  do 
were  it  not  for  the  removal  of  the  limits  of  space.  It  is 
this  thought  that  Tennyson  expresses  when  he  says, 
"Better  fifty  years  of  Europe 
Than  a  cycle  of  Cathay." 
Cathay  was  evidently  a  place  in  which  there  was  little 
opportunity  to  live  a  full,  rich  life,  while  it  is  possible 
to  do  so  in  Europe. 

The  Limitations  of  Disease. — We  are  limited  by  dis- 
ease. By  the  processes  of  education,  we  learn  to  push 
back  this  limit,  and  to  live  a  larger  number  of  years  than 
it  would  be  possible  were  it  not  for  education.  The 
average  length  of  life  in  all  civilized  countries  is  con- 
stantly increasing.  So  by  the  processes  of  education  we 
not  only  increase  the  quantity  of  human  life  in  a  given 
number  of  years,  but  we  actually  increase  the  number  of 
years  themselves. 

Other  TJiuitations. — We  are  limited  by  climate,  by 
seasons,  by  latitude.  By  the  processes  of  education  we 
may  enlarge  these  limits  and  live  in  places  where  other- 


64  I'RINXIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

wise   life   uoiikl   be   impossible.     In   even-   direction    \vc 

push  back  tbe  limits  and  increase  the  amount  of  life  that 

we  may  live.    This  is  the  thought  in  Holmes's  Chambered 

Nautilus : 

"Build  thee  more  stately  mansions,  O  my  soul 

As  the  swift  seasons  roll. 

Leave  thy  low-vaulted  past, 

Let  each  new  temple  nobler  than  the  last. 

Shut  thee  from  Heaven  with  a  dome  more  vast, 

Till  thou  at  length  art  free, 

Leaving  thine  outgrown  shell  on  Life's  unresting  sea." 

TJic  Quantity  of  Life.  Not  only  is  education  an 
eminently  practical  matter,  not  only  does  it  enable 
us  to  push  back  the  limits  and  add  to  the  quan- 
tity of  our  lives,  but  it  is  by  means  of  the  pro- 
cesses of  education  that  the  child  enters  upon  his  in- 
heritance. A  body  of  knowledge  has  been  accumulated 
slowly  and  laboriously  b}'  the  work  of  thousands  of  men 
through  all  the  years  and  centuries.  This  constitutes 
a  part  of  the  child's  race  inheritance,  and  it  rightfully 
belongs  to  him.  Ry  the  processes  of  education  the  child 
comes  into  possession  of  his  race  inheritance,  and  to  keep 
him  nut  of  it  by  ignorance  is  to  defraud  him  of  his  rights. 

Synopsis. 

L  Education  has  a  commercial  value.  The  people 
of  a  country  constitute  the  principal  part  of  the  wealth 
of  the  country,  and  a  large  part  of  this  value  in  the 
people  is  derived  from  Education. 

2.     Money    invested    in    education    returns    a    larger 


WHAT    I'.DUCATIOX    IJOES  65 

per  cent  on  the  investment  than   it  can  he  made  to  do 
when  invested  in  any  other  way. 

3.  Education  enahles  us  to  push  hack  the  hmits  of 
time,  space,  and  disease,  and  to  increase  not  only  the 
length  of  human  life,  hut  tn  intensify  it  so  that  we  live  a 
greater  quantity  of  life  in  the  same  numhcr  of  years  than 
would  he  possihle  for  us  without  education. 

4.  It  is  hy  the  processes  of  education  that  a  child 
enters  upon  his  racial  inheritance,  and  to  prevent  his  he- 
coming  educated  is  to  defraud  him  of  that  which  right- 
fully helongs  to  him. 


CHAPTER  V. 
The  Aim  of  Education. 

Importance  of  a  Proper  Aim. — We  wish  to  look  at 

Education  for  the  purpose  of  determining  what  we  may 

make  of  the  pupil  by  its  processes.     A  difference  in  our 

belief    concerning   the    purposes    of    education    makes   a 

difference  in  our  teaching,  and  to  our  pupils  in  learning. 

If  we  believe  that  the  purpose  of  education  is  one  thing, 

and  that  our   pu])ils   should  derive  certain  results   from 

our  teaching,  we  shall  teach  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause 

them  to  get  these  results.     If  we  set  up  some  other  aim 

for  education,  we  shall  teach  in  a  dift'erent  way.     Our 

methods  of  teaching  and  the  subjects  taught  will  very 

largely  be  determined  b)-  our  views  concerning  the  aim 

of  education. 

I'lic  KiioK'ledi^e  Aim. — A  great  majority  of  persons 
believe  that  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  is  the  primary 
])urpose  of  school  life.  They  express  it  by  saying  that  a 
child  sfoes  to  school  to  learn.  Thev  believe  that  the 
educated  man  is  the  one  who  knows  a  very  large  number 
of  facts.  School  is  regarded  as  a  source  of  knowledge, 
and  if  the  children  acquire  a  great  deal  of  knowledge  as 
the  result  of  their  school  work,  the  parents  are  satisfied. 
Children  almost   universally  entertain   this   opinion,   and 

66 


THE    AIM    UK    liDUCATION  67 

wlicn  a  child  is  asked  why  he  goes  to  school,  he  will 
almost  iiuariahly  ic[)ly  it  is  to  leani.  A  majority  of 
teachers  hold  the  same  opinion.  J 1  they  have  an  intellec- 
tual belief  in  the  validity  of  some  other  aim,  it  is  purely 
theoretical  and  is  not  permitted  to  influence  their  teach- 
ing. Examinations  in  school,  and  in  whatever  other  places 
they  may  occur,  attempt  to  discover  the  intellectual  status 
of  the  pupil  by  giving  him  an  opportunity  to  tell  what 
he  knows. 

The  Kiunclcdgc  ^iiin  Inadequate. — Notwithstanding 
the  popularity  of  this  knowledge  aim  of  education,  it  is 
not  difficult  to  show  that  it  cannot  be  the  true  purpose 
of  education.  Pupils  who  study  Latin  in  the  high  school 
spend  nearly  all  of  their  second  year  in  reading  about 
the  cami)aigns  of  Caesar  against  the  Gauls.  A  better  and 
more  comi)lete  knowledge  of  what  Caesar  really  did  in 
Gaul  might  be  obtained  in  two  weeks  by  reading  an  Eng- 
lish translation.  It  is  not  even  a  knowdedge  of  the  Latin 
language  tb.at  is  especially  desired.  A  knowledge  of  the 
Latin  lesson  for  any  particular  day  and  for  any  particular 
classic  may  be  obtained  in  much  shorter  time  and  quite 
as  accurately  l)y  tlic  use  of  an  interlinear  translation,  com- 
monly called  a  "jiony."  lUit  teachers  of  Latin  do  not 
advi'-e  the  reading  of  ponies,  or  English  translations.  On 
the  conlrarv-.  thev  try  lo  establish  a  code  of  honor  which 
will  iire\ent  students  reading  their  lessons  by  the  use  of 
a  pdiiw  ll  i^  e\ident  from  this  illustration  that  in  tiic 
Latin  classes,  at  least,  a  knowledge  of  facts  does  not  con- 
stitute the  end  that  is  desired.     It  is  true  that  a  knowledge 


68  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

of  Caesar's  campaigns  and  a  knowledge  of  the  Latin 
language  will  be  acquired,  but  it  is  evident  that  a  knowl- 
edge of  these  facts  does  not  constitute  the  purpose  for 
which  Latin  is  taught. 

Illustration  from  Mathematics. — The  same  thing  is 
true  in  arithmetic  and  in  algebra.  We  may  have  a  problem 
which  demands  of  us  the  length  of  a  pole  that  is  two 
sevenths  in  the  water,  one  seventh  in  the  mud  and  eight 
feet  in  the  air.  If  it  is  the  knowledge  of  the  length  of 
the  pole  that  is  sought,  we  may  turn  to  a  book  of  an- 
swers and  discover  the  length  in  that  way ;  but  such  a 
method  of  procedure  does  not  satisfy  the  teacher.  The 
teacher  demands  that  we  shall  find  out  by  a  very  tedious 
and  painstaking  process  the  length  of  the  pole.  If  the 
aim  and  purpose  of  studying  algebra  were  to  gain  a 
knowledge  of  facts,  we  might  commit  to  memory  the 
answers  of  the  problems  in  the  book  and  learn  our  les- 
son very  easily.  It  is  not  even  a  knowledge  of  processes 
in  arithmetic  and  algebra  that  is  demanded  by  the  teacher. 
It  is  true  that  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  which  constitutes 
the  answer  to  the  problem  will  be  obtained,  and  it  is  also 
true  that  a  knowledge  of  the  processes  by  which  the 
answer  is  obtained  will  be  acquired.  But  the  real  purpose 
that  the  teacher  of  arithmetic  or  algebra  has  in  mind  is 
something  vcrv  different  from  this.  If  a  knowledge  of 
the  processes  in  algebra  were  regarded  as  the  purpose 
of  the  study,  the  teacher  would  advise  the  use  of  a  key, 
bv  which  the  processes  could  easily  be  learned.  This  key 
would  show  how  the  problems  are  solved,  the  different 


THE    AIM    OF    EDUCATIUX  69 

processes  employed,  and  the  steps  to  be  taken  in  the 
solution. 

Kiiozclcdgc  of  Processes  Inadequate. — The  older 
books  on  arithmetic  stated  the  rule,  which  the  pupil  was 
expected  to  memorize.  When  the  rule  had  been  memor- 
ized, the  pupil  was  expected  -to  apply  it  to  the  solution 
of  problems,  and  so  fix  the  rule  in  memory.  Thus  in  the 
older  books  the  rule  of  three,  cr  the  rule  of  proportion 
was  stated  as  follows:  "Write  for  the  third  term  the 
number  that  is  of  the  same  denomination  as  that  required 
in  the  answer.  Then  from  the  nature  of  the  question 
consider  whether  the  answer  must  be  greater  or  less  than 
the  third  term.  If  greater,  place  the  larger  of  the  re- 
maining two  numbers  for  the  second  term  and  the  smaller 
for  the  first.  Multiply  the  second  arid  third  terms  to- 
gether and  divide  b}"  the  first.  The  quotient  will  be  the 
answer."  The  learning  of  the  nde  gave  a  knowledge  of 
the  process.  But  all  such  rules  are  now  discarded,  show- 
ing that  knowledge  of  the  processes  is  not  the  aim  that 
teachers  now  seek  in  arithmetic. 

Example  From  History. — The  same  thing  is  true  in 
history.  If  a  knowledge  of  the  facts  in  historv  were  tlie 
principal  thing  sought,  we  should  commit  to  memory  long 
columns  of  dates,  and  learn  the  tables  of  chronological 
recapitulation,  which  were  or.ce  such  favorite  devices  with 
teachers.  Teachers  of  history  no  longer  teach  in  that 
way.  and  thus  they  show  that  they  have  largely  discarded 
the  knowledge  aim  in  education. 

Origin  of  Objections  to  School. — It  is  this  knowledge 


70  I'RIXCII'LIIS   OK    TIIACIIING 

view  of  education  whicli  nial-ces  it  (lifticult  for  a  Ijoy  to  sec 
why  he  shoukl  go  to  school,  or  wliy  he  should  study 
particular  subjects.  His  constant  query  is,  "Why  should 
I  study  this?"  or  "How  will  a  knowledge  of  this  help  me 
in  the  work  I  am  proposing  to  do?"  The  teacher  must 
have  in  mind  very  clearly  the  real  purpose  of  education 
in  order  to  be  able  to  answer  satisfactorily  such  questions 
of  a  recalcitrant  boy. 

Undue  Emphasis  of  Memory. — It  is  this  knowledge 
view  of  education  that  leads  to  the  undue  emphasis  of 
memory  in  teaching.  Committing  to  memory  is  a  favor- 
ite requirement  of  some  teachers,  and  it  is  justitiable 
only  if  knowledge  is  the  aim  of  education.  It  is  this 
knowledge  aim  also,  that  sometimes  leads  a  person  to 
assert  that  his  school  work  was  of  no  value  to  him,  be- 
cause he  has  forgotten  all  that  he  learned  in  school.  It  is 
really  a  fortunate  thing  for  most  of  us  that  we  do  forget 
the  larger  part  of  the  things  that  we  have  once  learned. 
If  there  is  not  now  a  volume  upon  the  Uses  of  Forgot- 
ten Knowledge,  there  ought  to  be  one,  for  the  phrase  is 
very  suggestive. 

Aim  of  Mental  Discipline. — Recognizing  the  inade- 
quacy of  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  as  the  aim  of  edu- 
cation, some  persons  have  undertaken  to  establish  mental 
discipline  as  the  true  purpose.  It  is  believed  that  the 
real  purpose  of  education  is  not  the  accumulation  of 
knowledge,  but  the  training  of  the  mind.  The  mind, 
through  its  processes  of  learning,  becomes  alile  to  do 
what  otherwise  would  be  impossible  for  it.     Study  is  a 


THE    AI.M    Ui-    EDUCATION'  71 

kind  of  mental  gymnastics,  and  it  matters  little  what  sub- 
ject is  studied,  provided  that  it  furnishes  an  opportunity 
for  creat  mental  exercise.  The  more  difficult  the  lesson, 
provided  that  it  is  learned,  the  better  discipline  it  gives. 
The  more  difficult  the  method  of  teaching,  provided  that 
the  pupil  is  induced  to  learn  the  lesson  by  that  method, 
the  greater  the  value  to  be  derived  from  the  teaching. 
This  is  the  reason  why  teachers  of  Latin  object  to  trans- 
lations and  ponies.  They  affirm  that  it  is  not  the  knowl- 
edge of  the  subject  which  is  the  matter  of  especial  im- 
portance, but  that  in  the  study  by  which  the  knowledge 
of  the  subject  is  gained,  power  and  ability  to  do  mental 
work  in  any  direction  is  acquired. 

Syininctrkal  Devclopuicnt. — The  psychological  theory 
under  the  influence  of  which  this  idea  of  mental  discipHne 
has  been  developed,  assumes  that  the  mind  has  certain 
powers  which  need  to  be  cultivated.  Some  of  the  powers 
of  the  mind  are  likely  to  be  stronger  than  the  other 
powers.  The  aim  of  the  school  should  be  to  develop  a 
harmonious  individual  with  his  mental  powers  symmet- 
rically balanced.  The  definition  of  education  that  would 
apply  to  this  scheme  of  teaching  is  that  education  is 
mental  development. 

Cultiz'aiiiii^  the  JJ'cak  Powers. — The  mental  disci])line 
theory  would  lead  us  to  develop  the  weak  powers,  or  weak 
germs  of  ])o\ver,  rather  than  t(i  give  attention  to  the 
powers  that  are  already  strong.  The  strong  powers,  or 
germs  of  ])n\\cr.  will  take  care  (if  themselves,  while  the 
weak   germs   of   power    will    need   the   attention    of   the 


12  r:;ixciPLES  of  teaching 

teacher.  The  person  should  study  in  school  those  sub- 
jects that  will  develop  especially  the  powers  of  the  mind 
that  are  natural!}-  weak,  while  in  selecting  an  occupation 
for  life  he  should  choose  that  kind  wdiich  permits  the 
exercise  of  those  powers  that  in  him  are  especially  strong. 
If  a  pupil  is  particularly  weak  in  mathematics,  which  fact 
will  generally  be  shmvn  b\'  strong  disinclination  to  study 
mathematical  subjects,  he  should  be  put  through  a  severe 
course  in  mathematical  training.  If  he  is  inclined  to  be 
musical  and  not  at  all  disposed  to  science,  his  musical 
powers  will  take  care  of  themselves,  while  he  needs  to 
have  his  scientific  faculties  cultivated. 

Opposition  Between  School  and  Life. — Here  we  have 
in  business  the  exercise  of  the  strong  powers,  and  in 
school  the  exercise  of  the  weak  i)owers.  Hence  arises 
inevitably,  an  antagonism  between  school  and  life.  Not 
only  is  this  antagonism  rendered  inevitable  by  holding  to 
the  belief  in  mental  discipline  as  the  purpose  of  school, 
but  it  is  even  commended  by  the  advocates  of  this  theory. 
It  is  this  fact  that  gives  point  to  the  remark  that  in  school 
it  does  not  make  any  difference  what  >ou  study,  pro- 
vided it  is  something  that  }OU  do  not  like. 

Impraciieal  Subjects  Best  for  Discipline. — There  is 
another  conclusion  that  seems  unavoidable.  The  sub- 
jects that  are  proper  in  school,  and  which  are  to  be  pre- 
ferred for  mental  discipline,  are  those  which  are  farthest 
removed  from  practical  utility.  That  subject  is  better 
for  mental  discipline  which  has  and  can  have  no  practi- 
cal ap]ilication.     The  purpose  is  to  develop  those  powers 


THE    AIM    OV    EDUCAIION" 


73 


of  the  mind  that  are  not  Ukely  to  be  developed  by  the 
occupation  in  which  the  person  will  afterward  engage. 

Most  Difficult  Subjects  Best  for  Discipline. — In  the 
opinion  of  those  who  hold  to  this  doctrine  of  mental 
discipline,  that  subject  is  best  for  school  instruction  in 
which  there  is  the  greatest  demand  for  mental  work. 
A  professor  of  philosophy  states  that  Latin  is  a  much 
better  subject  for  school  instruction  than  is  French  or 
English,  because  in  the  understanding  of  a  specific  sen- 
tence in  Latin  there  is  a  demand  for  thirty-two  separate 
acts  of  judgment ;  while  in  the  corresponding  sentence 
in  French  or  English  there  is  a  demand  for  only  four- 
teen or  fifteen  acts  of  judgment.  If  this  be  the  standard 
of  excellence  in  subject  matter,  we  might  increase  the 
number  of  acts  of  judgment  demanded  in  reading  by 
striking  out  from  the  English  book  everv  third  word ;  or 
by  printing  it  in  the  form  of  illustrated  rebuses,  or  pic- 
ture writing,  which  would  enable  us  to  increase  the  num- 
ber of  acts  of  judgment  almost  indefinitely,  making  it 
more  difificult  to  read,  and  affording  a  much  greater 
opportunity  for  mental  discipline. 

Mental  Discipline  Ai)n  hiadcqitate. — The  theory  of 
mental  discipline  is  shown  to  be  defective  when  we  con- 
sider it  in  the  light  of  present  day  psychology.  It  as- 
sumes as  a  fundamental  postulate,  that  power  gained  in 
the  study  of  one  subject  is  capable  of  being  applied  to 
the  study  of  any  other  subject.  It  assumes  that  a  per- 
son who  has  had  his  mind  trained  by  the  study  of  Latin 
cin  an]ily  t!ie  power  so  gained  to  the  studv  of  mechanics ; 


74  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

that  a  person  whose  mhid  has  been  disciphned  by  the 
study  of  mathematics  will  be  found  prepared  to  study 
medicine.  That  botany  will  cultivate  the  observing  pow- 
ers to  such  an  extent  that  a  person  who  has  studied 
botany,  having  been  trained  to  observe  fine  distinctions, 
will  make  a  good  observer  in  geology,  or  a  good  proof- 
reader. The  statement  is  not  true.  Power  gained  in  the 
study  of  one  subject  does  not  contribute  very  materially 
to  the  study  of  an  unrelated  subject. 

Physiological  Dcmoiisiration  of  Inadequacy  of  Men- 
tal Discipline  Aim. — Let  us  picture  the  process  in  physi- 
ological terms.  Let  a  circle  represent  the  entire-  field 
of  the  brain,  and  let  a.  h,  c,  d,  e,  be  portions  of  this  brain 
field.  Let  us  suppose  that  a  comprises  all  the  brain 
cells  and  centers  that  are  traversed  by  impulses  when  we 
are  studying  Latin,  and  that  b,  c,  d,  are  not  traversed 
by  impulses  as  a  result  of  this  study.  Brain  cells  and 
centers  are  developed  by  the  transmission  of  impulses 
through  them.  They  are  developed  in  just  the  degree 
to  which  they  have  been  traversed,  and  have  formed 
connections  with  other  cells  and  centers.  Does  the  study 
of  Latin  develop  the  brain  cells  and  centers  in  that  por- 
tion of  the  brain  represented  by  /',  r,  d,  which  by  our 
supposition  arc  never  traversed  by  impulses  when  we  are 
studving  Latin  ?  Evidently  not,  and  this  corresponds  to 
the  statement  we  have  made,  that  power  gained  in  the 
study  of  one  subject  is  incapable  of  being  employed  in 
the  study  of  an  unrelated  subject. 

The   Truth    in    Mental  Discipline. — The   only   escape 


TKK    AIM    Ol'    i:i)rCATI().\  /:> 

from  this  conclusion  is  to  prove  that  every  l)rain  cell 
and  brain  center  i>  traversed  by  impulses  when  we  are 
learning  Latin,  or,-  as  was  the  common  expression  for- 
merly, that  the  wh.ole  mind  is  involved  in  every  learning 
process.  This  proposition,  however,  has  been  overthrown 
by  the  doctrine  of  Localization  of  Function,  which  teaches 
that  every  portion  of  the  brain  has  its  own  functions  to 
perform.  It  is  true,  however,  that  the  more  we  learn  of 
one  subject  the  more  easily  a  related  subject  is  learned. 
The  study  of  Latin  assists  in  the  learning  of  another 
language,  and  the  more  nearly  the  language  is  related  to 
Latin,  the  greater  the  assistance  rendered. 

Culture  Aim  of  Education. — Another  aim  of  educa- 
tion, sometimes  scarcely  discriminated  from  that  of  men- 
tal discipline,  is  culture.  Subjects  of  instruction  are 
sometimes  classified  as  culture  subjects  and  content  sub- 
jects. It  is  difficult  for  any  one  to  define  exactly  what 
is  meant  by  culture  when  it  is  used  in  this  sense,  but  in 
general,  wc  may  say  that  culture  is  an  expression  of  the 
leisure  class  idea.  It  is  best  indicated  by  saying  that 
culture  consists  in  learning  those  things  that  are  gener- 
ally known  by  cultured  people.  C  ultured  people  are  those 
whose  energies  have  been  directed  into  channels  other 
than  those  employed  in  making  a  living. 

The  Leisure  Class. — Ry  the  leisure  class  is  not  meant 
a  class  of  people  who  manifest  no  activity,  but  that  class 
of  people  whose  activities  are  not  devoted  to  mercenary, 
profitable  or  utilitarian  ends.  Language,  art  subjects, 
deportment   and   athletics   are    favorite   culture   subjects. 


'7(y  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

Each  of  these  departments  of  culture  education  manifests 
the  expenditure  of  large  amounts  of  time,  whose  results 
are  not  capable  of  being  applied  to  utilitarian  purposes. 
Drawing  as  a  fine  art  is  a  culture  subject ;  drawing  as 
learned  by  an  engineer  is  a  utilitarian,  or  content  sub- 
ject. 

Culture  A'ot  a  Universal  Aim. — It  seems  quite  evident 
that  in  communities  devoted  to  the  industrial  occupations, 
the  leisure  class  idea  of  education,  expressed  under  the 
term  culture,  will  never  be  satisfactory.  Culture  does 
not  express  a  universal  aim  of  education,  and  therefore 
it  can  not  be  adopted  as  the  real  purpose  and  end.  We 
need  some  broader  statement  of  purpose  than  this  can 
ever  be  made. 

Moral  Aiv.i  in  Education. — Some  writers,  seeing  the 
madequacy  of  tlie  knowledge  aim,  the  mental  discipline 
aim,  and  the  culture  aim  of  education,  have  endeavored 
to  establish,  as  the  real  purpose  of  education,  the  mak- 
ing of  the  individual  a  moral  being.  They  have  set  up 
the  development  of  moral  character  as  the  only  purpose 
in  education,  Tliis  aim  changes  very  much  the  subjects 
of  instruction  and  modifies  the  course  of  study.  Such 
writers  would  make  literature  and  history  the  basis  of 
all  school  work,  believing  that  it  is  in  and  through  these 
subjects  that  the  moral  nature  of  the  child  can  best  be 
cultivated,  and  that  from  them  can  best  be  derived  the 
ideals  which  it  is  necessary  for  him  to  acquire. 

Importance  of  Morality. — The  child  must  become  a 
moral  being.    The  very  existence  of  society  depends  upon 


THE    AIM    OF    KDLCATIOX  77 

morality.  Morality  is  conformity  to  the  demands  of  so- 
ciety, and  loyaltv  to  the  institutions  upon  which  society 
rests.  A  person  who  is  not  moral,  is  one  who  has  had 
his  development  arrested  upon  the  plane  of  an  egoistic 
and  self-centered  being.  Hence,  according  to  the  very 
terms  of  our  definition  he  cannot  have  been  educated. 

Kon-Morality  of  Children. — A  little  child  is  not  moral. 
He  will  do  things  which,  if  performed  by  older  persons, 
we  should  call  immoral.  A  little  child  has  no  regard  for 
the  rights  of  property,  does  not  manifest  any  sense  of 
modesty  or  shame,  experiences  no  feeling  of  responsibil- 
ity, disregards  the  rights  of  others,  and  shows  no  con- 
sideration for  their  feelings.  All  of  these  he  will  acquire 
as  he  grows  up.  We  excuse  him  by  saying  that  he  is  too 
little  or  too  young,  to  know  any  better. 

Morality  a  Matter  of  Growth. — Morality,  then,  is  a 
matter  of  development.  If  the  child  has  good  heredity, 
the  proper  kind  of  food,  and  if  his  ethical  atmosphere  is 
what  it  should  be,  his  moral  development  is  assured. 
The  things  that  contribute  to  the  development  of  the  in- 
dividual in  any  direction  are  the  things  which  make  for 
morality.  The  child  learns  how  to  act  in  society  by 
being  placed  in  social  situations  that  demand  action.  He 
must  come  to  recognize  the  rights  of  others,  and  he  does 
this  by  means  of  effective  protests  which  others  make  when 
he  invades  their  rights.  He  must  be  placed  in  situations 
where  such  protests  may  be  made  and  made  effectually. 
Hence  it  is  not  so  much  the  direct  teaching  of  morality 


78  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

that  is  demanded  as  it  is  the  placing  of  the  child  in  the 
proper  conditions   for  development. 

Iiiadcquacv  of  the  Moral  Aim. — But  there  are  some 
objections  more  positive  than  those  already  indicated  to 
the  cultivation  of  morality  as  the  sole  aim  of  education. 
If  the  development  of  morality  could  be  realized  in  an 
ideal  way  it  would  still  be  an  unsatisfactory  education. 
There  are  some  children  in  school  who  are  characterized 
as  "goody-good."  It  is  not  a  term  that  implies  respect, 
but  as  it  is  usually  employed,  it  is  a  designation  of 
weakness.  It  implies  that  a  person  so  characterized  is 
good,  but  little  or  nothing  else.  No  teacher  feels  that  a 
child  who  is  called  by  his  fellows  goody-good  is  an  ideal 
child.  If  we  were  to  succeed  in  making  all  persons  such 
as  are  implied  by  morality  as  the  cntl  of  education,  we 
should  have  a  nation  of  goody-goods.  A  good  person 
who  is  not  intellectual  or  cfifiicient,  when  put  into  a  po- 
sition of  authority  and  responsibility,  usually  does  more 
harm  than  a  person  who  knows  better  what  to  do  but  is 
morally  weaker.  There  are  few  persons  who  would  not 
become  more  indignant  at  being  called  a  fool  than  a 
knave.  So  it  appears  that  the  development  of  morality 
as  the  end  of  education  is  (piitc  as  defective  as  is  the 
knowledge  aim  or  the  mental  (]isci])linc  aim. 

Coniiinntitx  Life,  or  Social  Efficiency,  as  an  .lint. — 
W'c  ought  not  to  tear  down  a  niaiTs  house  unless  we  are 
read\'  to  build  liini  a  bcttrr.  W  c  must  not  discard  tlie 
aims  of  education  that  arc  already  pro]iosed  without  being 
read^'  to  substitute  a  larger  one.     The  four  aims  alrcadv 


THE    AIM    OF    KnUCATIOX  79 

discussed  have  beeia  shown  to  he  iiuuleciuate,  and  we 
must  estabHsh  an  aim  that  shall  comprehend  all  that 
is  good  in  each  of  the  others.  The  aim  of  education 
that  is  here  proposed  has  for  its  key-word  Community 
Life.  It  corresponds  very  nearly  to  Mr.  Spencer's  defi- 
nition of  education,  "preparation  for  complete  hving." 
That  person  is  well  educated  who  is  adjusted  in  every 
respect  to  the  life  of  the  community  in  which  he  lives. 
This  implies,  in  the  hrst  place,  that  he  shall  he  a  moral 
individual,  for  morality  is  necessary  to  the  continua- 
tion of  community  life.  The  individual  must  of  necessity 
possess  the  moral  virtues,  and  do  nothing-  habitually  that 
is  anti-social. 

I'hc  Developuioit  of  Society. — Society  exists  as  the 
result  of  certain  actions  on  the  i)art  of  the  individuals 
who  constitute  it.  In  the  develojiment  of  society,  cer- 
tain ways  of  acting  and  living  have  been  found  advan- 
tageous. Those  communities  have  survived  that  have 
adopted  certain  customs,  while  other  communities  which 
have  failed  to  adopt  such  advantageous  customs  have 
perished.  In  order  to  preserve  society,  these  advan- 
tageous customs  and  ways  of  living  have  been  crystallized 
into  institutions.  Conformity  to  these  institutions  is 
the  first  requisite  of  a  good  citizen.  The  education  of 
an  individual  must  train  him  to  conform  to  community 
or  institutional  life. 

Comprehensiveness  of  Coiiuiuniity  Life  os  on  Aim 
III  Education. — This  requires  that  the  individual  shall  be 
moral,  but  it  demands  that  he  shall  be  developed  physi- 


80  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

cally  and  mentally  as  well.  Society  demands  that  the  in- 
dividual shall  participate  in  its  intellectual  Hfe,  and  that 
he  shall  contribute  to  it  services  that  can  be  given  only 
through  physical  activity.  It  does  not  demand  that  the 
intellectual  development  shall  be  that  of  particular  pow- 
ers, for  it  is  the  whole  individual  that  is  to  be  developed. 
It  does  not  demand  that  the  training  shall  be  along  dif- 
ferent lines  from  that  which  the  individual  will  follow 
in  his  daily  life  after  he  leaves  school.  It  recognizes 
that  the  child  should  accumulate  knowledge,  not  merely 
for  the  purpose  of  using  it  to  develop  the  intellect,  but 
because  it  enables  him  to  enter  into  the  larger  life  of  the 
community,  and  to  adjust  himself  to  the  conditions  in 
which  he  finds  himself  placed.  It  is  by  the  accumulation 
of  knowledge  that  the  child  comes  into  his  race  inheri- 
tance. 

The  Knoi<'lcdg,c  Test  in  Mental  Discipline. — The  men- 
tal discipline  aim  of  education  insists  strongly  upon  the 
uselessness  of  knowledge  in  itself,  and  asserts  that  it 
has  no  use  except  as  its  acquisition  contributes  to  the 
mental  development  of  the  individual.  Examination 
upon  the  facts  of  knowledge  is  justified  only 
upon  the  assumption  that  the  acquisition  of  a  certain 
amount  of  knowledge  has  been  accompanied  by  a  corre- 
sponding increase  in  mental  power.  If  we  estimate,  then, 
the  amount  of  knowledge,  we  may  make  an  estimate  of 
the  amount  of  mental  power  that  has  been  acquired  in 
obtaining  that  knowledge. 

Community   Life   Includes  Mental  Discipline. — This 


THE    AIM    OF    EDUCATION  81 

aim  of  adjustment  to  community  life  demands  that  there 
shall  be  mental  discipline.  It  recognizes  the  fact  that 
the  acquisition  of  knowledge  does  result  in  the  gaining 
of  power  and  in  the  development  of  the  intellect,  although 
perhaps  not  in  the  way  that  the  advocates  of  the  theory 
of  mental  discipline  assert.  The  power  gained  is  a  power 
to  acquire  related  knowledge  more  easily,  not  unrelated 
knowledge.  The  new  knowledge  is  acquired  by  means  of 
the  related  knowledge,  not  by  means  of  abstract  mental 
power.  It  recognizes  that  mental  power  may  be  gained 
just  as  well,  or  better,  by  the  acquisition  of  knowledge 
which  can  be  applied  to  the  purposes  of  community  life, 
as  by  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  that  can  have  no 
such  application.  It  removes  completely  the  contradiction 
between  school  and  society,  and  brings  the  school  directly 
into  harmony  with  the  other  institutions  of  society.  This 
is  a  gain  whose  value  cannot  be  overestimated.  The 
child  who  goes  to  school  under  this  conception  of  edu- 
cation docs  not  go  to  school  to  learn  something,  nor  to 
have  his  mind  traincfl,  nor  to  become  a  moral  being.  All 
of  these  results  will  follow ;  but  he  goes  to  school  to 
learn  how  to  live  and  to  be  of  -^ocial  value  in  the  com- 
munity in  v>hich  he  finds  himself  placed. 

C!nmi:;cs  Ncccsslfafcd  by  Connmiiiify  Life  as  an  Aim. 
— Under  this  conception  of  the  purposes  of  education, 
we  shall  change  a  good  deal  of  our  educational  practice. 
We  shall  discard  a  good  deal  of  the  useless  and  inap- 
plicable subject  matter  of  instruction,  and  select  that 
which  has  some  direct  relation  to  the  communitv  life  in 


82  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

which  we  find  ourselves  immersed.  We  shall  discard 
the  cloister  and  convent  idea  of  education,  and  make 
school  a  place  where  life  abounds.  We  shall  recognize 
that  school  is  life,  and  that  only  by  making  it  life  can 
we  teach  children  how-  to  live. 

Synopsis. 

1.  It  makes  much  difference  to  the  pupil  what  aim 
of  education  the  teacher  holds  in  mind.  The  aim  of 
education  that  the  teaciicr  holds  in  mind  determines  the 
subjects  that  are  to  l)e  taught  and  the  methods  of  teach- 
ing, and  consequently  the  eft'ect  that  is  produced  upon 
the  character  of  the  pupil. 

2.  The  knowledge  aim,  the  mental  discipline  aim, 
the  moral  development  aim,  while  each  having  some- 
thing of  value,  are  all  of  them  inadequate. 

3.  A  more  comprehensive  and  more  nearly  adequate 
aim  of  education  is  that  of  teaching  a  child  to  live  in 
a  community  in  accordance  with  the  best  ideals  which 
the  community  represents. 


CHAPTER  \1. 

The  Akguiment  fur  the  Common  School. 

A^cccssity  for  Knoz\.'iiig  the  Arguincnt. — It  would  seem 
as  if  an  apology  were  necessary  for  presenting  an  argu- 
ment for  the  public  school,  because  it  is  the  one  institu- 
tion that  is  particularly  dear  to  the  hearts  of  the  Ameri- 
can people.  But  there  may  come  a  time  when  the  ene- 
mies of  the  public  school  will  challenge  its  right  to  exist, 
and  every  one  who  is  interested  in  the  welfare  of  the 
country  ought  to  know  the  reasons  that  called  it  into 
existence,  and  that  justif}-  its  maintenance.  Teachers 
in  the  public  schools  ought  especially  to  be  acquainted 
with  the  principles  that  underlie  its  establishment ;  yet 
it  is  true  that  not  many  teachers  would  be  willing  to  risk 
the  existence  of  the  public  school  u[)on  the  validity  and 
cogency  of  the  argument  which  they  might  be  able  to 
make. 

Two  Kinds  of  Schools. — There  are  in  the  public 
schools  of  the  United  States  today  about  16  million 
children,  while  in  other  schools,  mostly  private  and  paro- 
chial, there  are  about  a  million  and  a  half.  This  fact  in- 
dicates that  there  is  a  question  witli  two  sides,  both  of 
which  inust  be  considered. 

JJlraf  IS  a  ConiiiKvi  Schoo!F—T]\v  ])ul)lic  school  is 
common  because  it  is  designed  f(ir  cver\-  class  of  chil- 
dren in  the  country.     Tt  is  not  common   in  the  sense  of 

83 


84  rRI.NCIi'LES   OF    TEACHING 

being  poor  or  inefficient,  or  ordinar\-  or  "ornery."  It 
is  called  free  because  no  tuition  is  charged  for  attending 
it.  Every  child  has  the  right  to  attend,  and  to  receive 
the  benefits  of  instruction  without  the  payment  of  tui- 
tion. It  is  public  in  the  sense  that  it  is  supported  by 
public  taxation  and  is  controlled  by  the  state,  or  the 
community  in  which  it  is  placed. 

Tzi'o  Forms  of  tlw  Argument. — The  argument  for 
the  common  school  takes  two  forms.  One  is  an  argu- 
ment for  education  in  general,  which  does  not  apply  to 
the  public  school  more  than  to  other  educational  insti- 
tutions, until  it  can  be  shown  that  there  is  no  other 
asfencv  than  the  state  which  can  make  education  uni- 
versal. 

Education  Accessary  in  a  Free  Government. — The 
first  proposition  is  that  education  and  a  high  order  of 
intelligence  is  necessary  in  a  republican  form  of  govern- 
ment. The  liberties  of  the  people  cannot  be  preserved 
unless  there  is  a  high  average  of  intelligence.  In  a 
republican  form  of  government,  the  representatives,  who 
are  directl}'  responsible  to  the  people,  make  the  laws. 
Good  laws  are  not  likely  to  be  made,  unless  the  people  are 
so  intelligent  that  tlicv  mav  Ivtld  their  representatives 
responsible  for  the  laws  which  the\-  make.  In  a  despotic 
government,  it  is  not  the  safest  thing  for  the  government 
that  the  people  shall  be  educated  and  intelligent ;  but 
in  a  free  government,  the  preservation  of  liberty  de- 
mands the  highest  possible  intelligence. 

Education    and   Slavery. — On   the   other    hand,    it    is 


THE   .\K(U;.M1-:.\T    FOR    TliK    CO.M.MOX    SCHOOL  85 

impossible  to  enslave  a  people,  and  take  away  their  lib- 
erties, when  there  is  a  high  average  of  intelligence.  In 
the  slavery  days,  many  of  the  southern  states  made  it 
a  criminal  offense  to  teach  a  negro  slave  to  read  and 
write.  They  recognized  the  fact  that  when  a  negro  did 
learn  to  read  and  write  he  became  impatient  of  his 
slave  condition  and  immediately  tried  to  escape  from 
slavcrv.  This  is  a  "ood  illustration  of  the  difficultv  ex- 
]K'rienced  in  trying  to  enslave  a  ])eople  who  are  educated 
and  intelligent. 

Education  and  Morality. — The  second  argument  is 
that  education  makes  the  people  moral.  Morality  is 
necessary  in  the  preservation  of  the  community.  We 
have  recognized  the  necessity  for  morality  in  our  defi- 
nition of  education.  We  have  said  that  education  changes 
the  individual  from  a  self-centered  being  to  a  social 
being.  Hence  by  our  very  definition  of  education  it 
must  conduce  to  morality.  An  immoral  person  is  an  anti- 
social beincr.  and  has  not  learned  to  live  with  other 
persons  in  conformit}  to  the  institutions  of  society.  It 
is  in  school  that  children  learn  to  live  together,  and 
thus  inevitably  education  tends  to  produce  morality. 

Education  and  Crime. — Prison  statistics  show  that  in 
proportion  to  their  numbers  the  illiterate  members  <if 
the  communit}-  furnish  eight  times  as  many  criminals 
as  do  the  educated  classes.  It  is  true  that  some  crimes, 
such  as  forgery  and  coimterf citing  are  impossible  for 
illiterate  criminals;  but  this  fact  can  scarcely  be  urged 
as  an  argument  for  ignorance. 


S6  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

The  Standard  of  Education. — Prison  statistics  from 
wliich  tlie  al)()vc  statements  arc  derived,  draw  the  distinc- 
tion between  educated  and  uneducated  at  the  ability  to 
read  and  write.  In  a  countr\  where  the  knowledge  of 
reading  and  writing  is  so  easily  obtained  as  it  is  here, 
where  the  very  atmosphere  in  which  a  person  lives  leads 
him  to  learn  to  read  and  write,  a  knowdedge  of  reading 
and  writing  is  a  very  unsatisfactory  standard  of  educa- 
tion. If  we  were  to  establish  a  more  adequate  standard 
for  illiteracy,  the  prison  statistics  would,  without  any 
doubt,  be  very  much  more  emphatic  than  they  are  now 
in  demonstrating  that  education  conduces  to  morality. 

Educated  Crimiuals. — There  is  every  probability  that 
the  person  who  has  attended  school  and  still  remains  a 
criminal  would  have  been  a  criminal  without  attending 
school,  although  his  criminality  might  have  taken  a  dif- 
ferent form.  No  one  will  charge  that  his  criminality  is 
the  result  of  his  school  experience ;  the  most  that  can  be 
urged  is  that  the  school  did  not  develop  him  beyond  the 
point  of  criminality.  It  is  doubtful  if  education  can 
completely  overcome  bad  heredity,  or  if  a  person  born 
wdth  little  tendency  to  develop,  can  ever  be  developed 
beyond  the  point  of  criminality.  There  are  such  beings 
as  recidivists,  or  born  criminals  ;  but  that  the  atmosphere 
of  school  is  conducive  to  morality  and  favors  moral  de- 
velopment cannot  be  seriously  questioned. 

Morality  and  Religiou. — It  is  sometimes  asserted  that 
children  cannot  be  made  moral  by  education  that  is  not 
distinctly  religious  in  character.     It  is  true  that  nearly 


Tllli   ARGUMENT    FOR    Tllli    COMMON'    SCHOOL  87 

all  moral  individuals  are  religious  and  that  nearly  all 
religious  persons  are  moral.  But  there  are  some  persons 
who  are  profoundly  religious  but  not  moral,  and  there 
are  some  persons  who  are  profoundly  moral  but  not  re- 
ligious. The  fact  that  there  are  such  persons  shows 
that  religion  and  morality  are  not  identical.  In  fact,  it 
can  be  shown  that  the  religious  and  the  moral  sentiments 
are  not  identical,  but  spring  from  quite  different  origins. 
Education  and  Pauperism. — The  third  argument  is 
that  education  tends  to  prevent  pauperism.  In  our  defi- 
nition we  have  said  that  education  changes  an  individual 
from  a  dependent  to  an  independent  being.  No  person 
is  indenendent  who  cannot  make  a  living.  Education 
opens  many  ways  for  an  individual  to  employ  his  pow- 
ers. An  examination  of  poorhouses  will,  without  any 
doubt,  show  that  the  degree  of  education  and  intelligence 
among  the  inmates  is  low.  This  argument  is  more  par- 
ticularly valid  if  the  education  is  that  which  is  based 
upon  the  idea  of  industrial  efficiency.  Leisure  class  edu- 
cation is  much  less  effective  in  promoting  independence. 
The  public  schools  are,  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  country, 
based  primarily  upon  the  idea  of  industrial  ef- 
ficiencv,  while  the  private  and  parochial  schools  are  es- 
tablished upon  a  different  basis.  There  is  however,  nearly 
everywhere  an  opportunity  for  much  greater  emphasis 
than  is  now  given,  even  in  the  public  schools,  to  the 
idea  of  industrial  efficiency. 

Validity    of    fhrsc    Ari^nments. — These    three    argu- 
ments are  for  education  in  general  rather  than  for  the 


88  PRINCIPLES   UP    TPACUING 

free  public  school.  Let  us  leave  the  demonstration  of  the 
fact  that  only  state  scliools  can  bring  about  universality 
of  education  until  we  discuss  the  special  advantages  of 
the  public  school  over  the  other  kinds  of  schools. 

Argument  From  Homogeneity. — The  first  advantage 
of  the  public  schools  over  other  kinds  of  schools  is  that 
thev  tend  to  make  the  people  of  the  country  homogen- 
eous. Diversity  of  interests  and  habits  of  thought  is 
a  source  of  most  dangerous  weakness  to  a  country.  In- 
stead of  being  a  source  of  strength,  numbers  constitute 
a  source  of  weakness  unless  the  people  are  homogen- 
eous in  their  interests  and  ideals.  The  Austro-Hungarian 
monarchy  is  very  weak  from  this  cause.  Under  one 
government,  people  cliff ering  widel}'  in  race,  language, 
ideals  and  habits  of  thought,  a  revolution  is  immanent 
in  Austro-Hungary  at  any  time. 

Heterogeneity  of  the  People  of  the  United  States. — 
There  is  no  other  countr^•  in  which  this  prolilem  of 
diversity  of  race  and  people  is  so  tremendously  impor- 
tant as  it  is  in  the  United  States.  The  origin  of  our 
nation  is  essentially  Anglo-Saxon.  The  first  settlers 
were  Englishmen.  The  English  Pilgrims,  who  spoke 
the  English  language  and  who  entertained  English  ideas 
of  political  liberties,  settled  in  Massachusetts.  They 
were  followed  by  the  Puritans,  wlio  could  not  live  at 
home  in  consequence  of  their  religious  non-conformity 
views.  They  sought  a  place  in  the  New  World  where 
they  could  worship  (]od  in  their  own  way  and  make 
everybody  else  do  the  same.     Thev  persecuted  the  Ouak- 


THE   ARGUMi:N'r    l-OR    Tllli    COMMON    SCHOOL  89 

ers,  showiiii^  that   their   ideas   of   religious   Hbcrty   were 
very  rudimentary. 

In  \'irginia  settled  another  group  of  Englishmen, 
holding  the  English  ideals  of  political  liberty,  such  as  trial 
b}-  jur\\  and  conforming  to  the  religion  of  the  established 
church.  Between  the  two,  in  Maryland,  was  established 
a  colony  of  English  Catholics,  who  had  been  persecuted 
at  home,  but  they,  too,  maintained  the  ideas  of  English 
political  liberty.  In  Carolina  and  Georgia  were  other 
Englishmen.  In  Pennsylvania  settled  a  colony  of  Eng- 
lish Quakers,  whose  motive  in  seeking  the  New  World 
was  lo  escape  religious  persecution.  They,  however, 
maintained  the  doctrines  of  English  political  liberty. 
Also  there  were  Swedes  in  Delaware  and  Dutch  in  New 
York,  furnishing  a  heterogeneous  element,  although  not 
exercising  a  determining  influence  u])on  the  character  of 
the  country  in  the  beginning.  The  predominant  influ- 
ence in  regard  to  political  institutions  was  English.  In 
religious  matters  they  could  ntjt  agree,  hence  it  came 
about  that  when  the}'  were  compelled  to  work  together 
by  the  exigencies  of  the  Revolutionar\  war.  they  agreed 
upon  the  English  language  and  luiglish  political  insti- 
tutions, but  were  compelled  to  adopt  the  principle  of 
religious  liberty,  and  the  absolute  separation  of  church 
and  state. 

Heterogeneous  Elcinriits  in  fnnni '^ration. — Immigra- 
tion  began  soon  to  figure  in  the  population  of  the  coun- 
try. Tlie  earliest  influx  of  immigrants  was  from  Eng- 
land.    These  constituted  no  new  element  in  the  countrv, 


90  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

but  harmonized  with  the  population  alread}  here.  About 
1830,  or  a  few  years  before,  began  the  great  Irish  im- 
migration which  lasted  for  more  than  twenty  years. 
The  Irish  and  the  English  were  not  well  adjusted  in 
their  native  countries,  and  it  is  scarcely  likely  that  they 
would  harmonize  without  modification  in  this.  About 
1850  the  German  immigration  began,  and  continued  for 
twenty  years.  The  German  is  not  less  tenacious  of  his 
own  ideas  than  is  either  the  Englishman  or  the  Irish- 
man ;  so  without  adjustment  and  modification  there  is 
not  much  probability  that  three  such  diverse  nationali- 
ties will  work  together  in  a  common  cause.  About  1870 
the  immigration  from  the  Scandinavian  countries  be- 
came a  characteristic  feature  and  introduced  a  new  ele- 
ment into  the  population  of  the  country.  Since  1890 
the  immigration  has  been  greater  than  ever  before,  and 
has  come  largely  from  Italy  and  the  other  countries  of 
southern  Europe.  A  very  large  number  of  Russian  Jews 
have  introduced  an  element  heretofore  lacking  in  the 
population  of  the  country.  There  is  scarcely  a  country 
in  the  world  that  has  not  contributed  to  the  popu- 
lation of  the  United  States.  In  the  larger  cities,  the 
tendency  is  for  these  dififerent  nationalities  to  segregate 
and  to  remain  true  to  the  language,  traditions,  and  ideals 
of  their  native  country. 

TJie  Real  Danger  in  Ivunigration. — This  is  the  real 
danger  from  immigration.  Instead  of  having  a  large 
number  of  people,  all  Americans,  there  is  danger  that 
we  shall  have  a  large  number  of  different  nationalities 


Tin:    AKC.L'.MI'.XT    FOR    Till'.    (.OMMON    SClKxH,  91 

with  a  very  loose  bond  of  uiiiim.  tlnis  cngenderiiii;-  <;Teat 
weakness.  More  than  a  niilhon  immigrants  are  arriving 
each  vear.  L'nless  the  country  can  transform  these  peo- 
])lc  into  Americans  with  American  traditions  and  notions 
of  government,  and  speaking  a  common  language,  it  is 
impossible  to  hope  for  the  perpetuation  of  the  govern- 
ment or  its  progression  along  the  line  in  which  it  has 
started. 

Common  ScJiools  the  Most  Efficient  Agency  in  Pro- 
moting Homogeneity. — There  is  no  other  agency  than 
the  public  school  that  can  harmonize  so  effectively  these 
diverse  interests,  and  make  ^Americans  of  the  children 
of  the  immigrants.  Other  schools  cannot  do  it,  because 
other  schools  are  founded  upon  other  ideas,  and  delimited 
bv  other  lines  of  demarcation  than  the  fact  of  belonging 
to  one  common  country.  Church  schools  attract  only  the 
children  of  families  who  belong  to  that  one  church. 
Often,  too,  these  church  schools  teach  the  children  in 
a  language  other  than  English.  Private  schools  fre- 
quentlv  mark  off  the  children  of  the  rich  from  the  chil- 
dren of  the  poor.  In  the  public  school,  the  children 
learn  to  live  together,  to  know  each  other,  and  to  give 
to  each  others'  opinions  the  same  respect  that  they  de- 
mand for  their  own.  They  learn  to  speak  a  common 
language,  the  principal  bond  and  source  of  strength 
among  the  people  of  a  country. 

U'^hat  is  Meant  by-  Homogeneity. — It  is  not  meant 
by  being  homogeneous,  that  the  people  shall  all  come  to 
have    the    same    political    and    religious    opinions.      The 


92  I'KIXCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

public  school  does  not  undertake  to  coerce  the  opinions 
of  any  child.  In  fact,  it  is  sometimes  urged  against 
the  public  school  that  in  it  the  children  are  allowed  too 
much  freedom  of  opinion.  The  history  is  not  interpreted 
for  them,  but  the  children  are  allowed  to  interpret  it  for 
themselves.  Instead  of  this  fact  being  a  weakness  in 
the  public  school,  it  is  the  cardinal  glory  of  its  consti- 
tution. It  permits  each  child  to  interpret  the  facts  for 
himself;  but  it  teaches  children  to  live  together  and  to 
respect  tlie  rights  of  others. 

Other  Schools  Xot  Productive  of  Houwg^cncity. — In 
schools  patronized  by  wealthy  parents  the  wealthy  chil- 
dren mav  learn  to  live  with  wealthy  children,  but  they 
learn  little  about  respecting  the  rights  and  opinions  of 
the  people  who  are  not  wealthy.  Such  schools  are  a 
source  of  weakness  instead  of  strength  to  a  country. 
The  same  thing  is  true  of  parochial  schools,  in  which 
children  of  only  one  religious  faith  are  gathered  to- 
gether. They  are  not  likely  to  learn  to  live  in  harmony 
with  people  of  another  faith,  but  the  natural  tendency 
is  to  become  intolerant  and  to  disregard  the  rights  and 
opinions  of  others. 

Godless  Schools. — Let  us  look  at  some  of  the  objec- 
tions that  are  raised  to  the  public  schools.  The  first 
objection  is  that  they  are  godless  schools.  By  this  is 
meant  that  there  is  no  religious  instruction  given  in  the 
schools,  but  it  does  not  mean  that  they  are  ungodly  or 
immoral,  or  incapable  of  producing  the  proper  kind  of 
moral  training.  Let  us  see  how  the  schools  became  god- 
less. 


THE   ARGUMENT    FOR    THE    COMMON    SCHOOL  93 

The  prototype  of  the  public  schools  was  the  New  Eng- 
land district  school.  These  schools  were  organized  by 
the  church  and  closely  affiliated  with  it.  Much  religious 
instruction  was  given  in  iheni.  Wlun  these  schools  were 
reorganized  upon  the  present  basis  by  Horace  Mann,  the 
religious  feature  was  still  retained.  But  now  came  a 
protest  from  different  religious  bodies,  that  the  teaching 
was  not  in  conformity  with  the  views  which  they  held,  and 
they  could  not  subject  their  children  to  religious  instruc- 
tion opposed  to  the  faith  of  their  ]xirents.  Perhaps  the 
protests  of  the  Roman  Catholic  priesthood  were  the 
most  effective.  They  objected  to  the  reading  of  the 
King  James  version  of  the  bible  instead  of  the  Douay 
bible.  Then  it  came  to  be  recognized  that  there  was  an 
inconsistency  in  requiring  Jewish  children  to  participate 
in  the  exercises  of  the  Christian  religion,  and  in  readings 
from  the  New  Testament.  Besides  this,  there  was  a 
protest  from  the  people  who  were  called  infidels  and 
atheists,  who  objected  to  any  form  of  religious  instruc- 
tion, and  desired  a  kind  of  teaching  directly  contradictory 
to  the  teachings  of  religion.  In  order  to  remove  all 
cause  for  dissension,  all  religious  instruction  was  grad- 
ually dropped  from  public  school  teaching.  But  no 
sooner  had  this  result  been  obtained  than  the  same  per- 
sons who  had  protested  against  religious  teaching  in  the 
public  schools  now  said  that  the  schools  were  godless 
and  refused  to  commend  them. 

Education  fJic  Busuicss  of  the  Parent. — The  second 
objection  is  that  education  is  the  busincs-  of  the  parent 


94  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

and  not  the  business  of  the  state.  This  objection  would 
be  vahd  if  it  were  the  parent  that  is  to  be  educated,  and 
if  it  were  invariably  the  case  that  the  parent  would  pro- 
tect the  rights  of  the  child.  But  there  are  two  other 
parties  to  be  considered  besides  the  parent.  One  is  the 
child,  whose  rights  the  state  must  safeguard  even  against 
the  parent.  The  parent  ma)-  be  one  who  does  not  be- 
lieve in  education,  and  may  let  the  child  grow  up  in 
ignorance,  as  many  parents  are  willing  to  do.  When  the 
child  becomes  a  man,  his  opportunity  for  education  is 
gone  and  cannot  be  restored.  He  has  been  deprived  of 
his  inheritance  in  the  stores  of  knowledge  accumulated 
by  the  race.  Hence  it  is  necessary  that  the  state  shall 
protect  the  rights  of  the  child  to  an  education,  just  as 
it  is  necessary  that  it  shall  protect  his  right  to  live. 

Tlic  Business  of  the  State. — The  third  party  to  the 
transaction  is  the  state  itself.  When  the  child  has  grown 
to  manhood,  the  parent  is  released  from  all  his  obliga- 
tions to  him,  and  the  state  must  accept  him  as  a  citizen. 
The  state  cannot  refuse  to  receive  him.  whether  he  is  ig- 
norant or  learned,  vicious  or  virtuous,  inefficient  and 
pauper,  or  self-helpful  and  independent,  criminal  or  not. 
Hence  it  is  the  duty  and  the  part  of  wisdom  for  the 
state  to  exercise  some  supervision  over  the  education 
and  character  of  its  future  citizens. 

Education  the  Business  of  the  Church. — The  third  ob- 
jection is  that  education  is  the  business  of  the  church. 
The  fundamental  doctrine  of  this  country  is  that  there 
shall  be  an  absolute  separation  of  the  church   from  the 


THK   ARGUMKNT    KOR    THE    COMMON'    SCHOOL  95 

state.  Although  all  may  agree  upon  the  validity  of  this 
principle,  there  is  ditttculty  when  we  conie  to  make  ap- 
plication of  it.  The  state  assumes  that  marriage  is  a 
private  contract  and  provides  that  the  sanction  of  law 
must  be  secured.  It  provides  for  the  issuance  of  a 
license  and  its  i)roper  return  and  certification  before 
the  marriage  shall  be  legal.  But  the  church  assumes  it 
has  jurisdiction  over  the  institution  of  marriage,  although 
such  contention  was  not  made  before  the  eleventh  cen- 
tury. There  is  a  compromise  by  which  the  state  accepts 
the  certification  of  the  legal  papers  by  the  accredited 
officers  of  the  church. 

The  same  situation  prevails  in  the  matter  of  educa- 
tion. The  state  assumes  that  secular,  but  not  religious, 
education  is  the  business  of  the  state.  It  has  not  for- 
bidden to  the  church  the  matter  of  secular  education, 
but  it  has  acknowledged  that  religious  education  is  not 
state  business.  It  seems  as  if  we  have  here  the  proper 
place  to  draw  the  line  between  the  business  of  the  church 
in  education  and  the  state.  Is  education  the  business 
of  the  church?  Yes,  religious  education,  and  the  church 
might  well  confine  its  efforts  to  that  field.  Is  education 
the  business  of  the  state?  Yes,  secular  education,  and 
the  state  would  better  guard  its  prerogatives  rather  care- 
fully. 

Dhnsion  of  the  School  Fund. — The  idea  that  educa- 
tion is  the  business  of  the  church  usually  takes  the  form 
of  a  demand  for  a  division  of  the  school  fund.  The 
argument  is  a  specious  one,  but  its  fallacy  is  easily  seen. 


96  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

The  argument  runs  about  as  follows :  In  a  certain  city, 
or  district,  the  church  organizations  maintain  parochial 
schools  in  which  are  educated  sixty  thousand  children, 
or  one-fifth  of  all  the  children  who  are  educated  in  the 
city.  The  state  accepts  the  education  given  in  these 
schools  as  equivalent  to  the  education  that  would  other- 
wise be  given  in  the  public  schools.  The  state  is  re- 
lieved from  the  necessitv  of  educating  the  sixtv  thou- 
sand  children,  and  therefore  needs  to  expend  a  smaller 
amount  of  money  than  it  otherwise  would  do.  The  pa- 
rochial schools  represent  a  distinct  saving  to  the  city 
or  district.  It  is  no  more  than  just  that  the  city  should 
reimburse  the  parochial  schools  for  the  money  which 
they  expend  in  educating  the  children,  up  to  the  amount 
which  the  parochial  schools  save  the  city. 

Effect  of  Such  Division. — Let  us  see  what  would 
happen  if  this  claim  were  allowed.  If  this  demand  were 
granted  to  one  denomination  for  one  kind  of  a  school, 
it  could  not  be  refused  to  another  for  another  kind  of 
a  school.  As  soon  as  the  principles  were  allowed,  every 
denomination  could  make  its  claim,  and  the  entire  school 
fund  would  be  dissipated.  The  state  would  then  be  in 
the  position  of  levying  taxes  and  distributing  funds  to 
the  church  to  be  employed  by  the  church  in  ways  over 
which  the  state  had  no  jurisdiction.  The  school  fund 
so  raised  would  be  employed  largely  for  the  purpose 
of  teachina:  religion,  which  is  not  the  business  of  the 
state.  It  would  have  no  control  over  the  money 
so   expended,   and   the   state   is   not   justified   in    raising 


iiii':   \ki;l'.mi;.\  I    i"ok    iiii:  com.mox  school         97 

money  to  be  exjicndec!  in  ways  over  which  it  has  no 
control. 

Double  Taxation. — There  is  another  objection,  that 
persons  who  support  private  schools  are  doubly  taxed. 
This  argument  might  have  some  weight  if  the  children 
of  tliose  parents  who  support  the  private  schools  were 
refused  admission  to  the  public  schools,  l)ut  such  is  not 
the  case.  They  arc  invited  and  urged  to  attend  the 
public  schools,  but  refuse  to  do  so.  Jt  is  even  a  con- 
cession on  the  part  of  the  state  to  permit  children  to 
be  educated  in  schools  over  which  it  has  no  control,  and 
not  even  the  right  of  inspection.  If  it  should  ever  be 
shown  that  any  schools  were  teaching  doctrines  inimical 
to  .the  government,  no  one  could  question  the  right  of 
the  state  to  assume  control  of  such  schools  or  even  close 
them  up.  It  is  perfectly  possible  that  an  exigency  might 
arise  making  it  necessary  to  conijicl  attendance  upon 
the  state  schools,  or  to  put  private  schools  under  public 
inspection. 

Unh'crsal  Education  Possible  Only  by  the  State. — 
The  churcli  has  never  been  able  to  bring  about  universal 
education,  even  in  those  countries  where  it  has  been 
most  influential.  Only  in  those  countries  in  which  the 
"^tate  has  taken  upon  itself  the  duty  of  providing  schools 
has  education  become  anything  like  universal.  It  is  this 
fact  that  gives  point  to  the  three  arguments  for  universal 
education.  These  become  valid  arguments  for  the  pub- 
lic school  as  soon  as  it  is  recognized  that  public  schools, 
or  state  schools  are  the  only  agents  by  which  education 
mav  be  made  universal. 


98  PRIXCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Taxins:  One  Man  to  Educate  Another  Man's  Chil- 
dren. — Another  objection  made  with  less  frequency  than 
formerly  is  that  it  is  not  equitable  to  tax  one  man  to 
educate  another  man's  children.  There  would  be  some 
justice  in  this  contention  if  the  taxes  taken  were  ex- 
pended for  the  peculiar  benefit  of  the  other  man,  or  even 
for  the  other  man's  children.  The  tax  is  levied  and 
collected  and  expended  for  the  benefit  of  the  state.  It 
benefits  the  state  by  reducing  the  crime  and  pauperism 
that  otherwise  must  burden  the  state.  It  would  be  just 
as  easy  to  sustain  the  objection  that  it  is  inequitable  to 
tax  one  man  for  the  support  of  the  police  department 
to  protect  his  neighbor's  property  from  thieves  and  rob- 
bers ;  or  to  raise  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  fire  de- 
partment to  keep  a  neighbor's  house  from  burning 
down. 

Education  a  Profitable  Investment  of  Money. — It  re- 
mains merely  to  show  that  money  invested  in  education 
biings  a  larger  return  to  the  community  as  a  whole 
than  does  money  invested  in  any  other  way.  This  dem- 
onstration is  made  in  Chapter  Y.  Our  conclusion  is 
that  the  free  common  public  school  is  fully  justified  by 
reason  and  by  results.  The  very  worst  that  can  be 
said  about  it  is  said.  There  is  no  other  school  in  the 
world  that  dares  to  expose  to  public  inspection  Its  in- 
most workings,  both  in  its  moral  results  and  in  its  teach- 
ing  practices.  The  public  school  does  so,  and  it  is  this 
fact  that  gives  the  people  confidence  in  it. 


the  argument  for  the  common  school         99 

Synopsis. 

1.  The  argument  for  ihc  coniiiiou  school  takes  two 
forms.  One  is  for  education  in  general,  which  applies 
to  all  forms  of  schools.  This  is  an  argument  for  the 
common  school  when  it  is  shown  that  state  education 
is  the  only  means  by  which  education  can  become  uni- 
versal. The  other  argument  applies  to  the  public  school 
directly. 

2.  In  a  republican  government,  universal  education 
and  a  high  degree  of  intelligence  is  necessary  in  order 
to  maintain  the  rights  of  the  people.  Education  strength- 
ens the  country  by  decreasing  crime  and  pauperism. 

3.  Public  school  education  renders  the  people  homo- 
geneous in  their  ideals  and  language,  and  strengthens 
the  nation. 

4.  The  objections  to  the  public  schools,  that  educa- 
tion is  the  business  of  the  church,  that  it  is  the  business 
of  the  parent,  that  the  schools  are  godless,  that  parents 
who  send  their  children  to  private  schools  are  doubly 
taxed,  that  it  is  wrong  to  tax  one  man  to  educate  an- 
other man's  children  are  invalid  objections. 

5.  State  education  is  the  only  process  by  which  edu- 
cation may  be  made  universal. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
Periods  in  Child  Development. 

The  Culture  Epoch  Theory. — The  Culture  Epoch 
theory  assumes  that  there  is  a  parahel  between  the  men- 
tal development  of  the  individual  and  that  of  the  race. 
Using  this  as  a  basis,  the  attempt  is  made  to  construct 
a  really  scientific  course  of  study,  determining  the 
particular  subject  that  shall  be  taught  by  the  stage  of 
development  in  which  the  child  ma}-  be  at  any  specified 
time.  If  the  child  repeats  in  his  mental  development  the 
development  of  the  race,  the  exercises  wliich  a  child 
undertakes  at  any  time  should  be  those  which  correspond 
to  the  occupations  of  the  race  when  the  people  were  in 
the  stage  of  development  corresponding  to  that  in 
v^^hich  the  child  is  at  the  time. 

The  Bioi^eiietic  Laze. — In  order  to  understand  the 
culture  epoch  theory,  we  shall  need  to  understand  in  the 
first  place,  the  biogenetic  law.  or  Von  Baer's  principle, 
from  which  the  culture  epoch  theory  is  derived. 

The  Taxonomic  Series. — If  we  examine  all  the  ani- 
mals that  now  live  upon  the  earth  and  arrange  them  in 
a  series  according  to  their  various  degrees  of  complexity, 
we  shall  start  witli  a  protozoan,  such  as  an  amoeba, 
and  we  shall  conclude  our  series  with  a  mammal,  such 

100 


I'F.kloDS    IN    (1111.1)   1)1.\  i:i.()l'.MK.\T  101 

man.  ^^'e  can  readily  distinguish  five  or  more  great 
groups.  The  simijlest  animals  that  are  now  living  are 
one-celled  animals,  of  which  an  amoeba  is  a  good  ex- 
ample. While  an  amoeba,  consisting  of  a  single  animal 
cell,  is  a  very  complex  organism,  it  is  not  nearly  so  com- 
plex a's  is  an  animal  whose  body  is  composed  of  many 
cells. 

The  next  group  of  animals,  in  order  of  complexity, 
is  the  group  of  invertebrates.  There  i^re  Uiiaiiy  degrees 
of  complexity  among  invertebrates.  biit,v.e  ma}  grou]) 
them  all  together,  and  consider  a  worm  as  a  type  of  the 
whole  group. 

The  third  order  of  complexity  will  be  represented 
bv  a  vertebrate,  but  that  kind  of  vertebrate  which  we 
know  as  a  tish.  A  fish  has  a  two-chambered  heart, 
breathes  by  gills,  the  lilood  is  sent  forward  to  the  gills 
by  a  single  aorta,  and  in  other  respects  it  is  not  so  com- 
plex as  are  other  kinds  of  vertebrates. 

The  fourth  member  of  our  series  will  be  the  group  of 
reptiles  which  may  be  represented  by  a  turtle.  This 
group  is  more  complex  than  the  fish,  having  a  three- 
chambered  heart,  breathes  by  lungs,  and  has  other  char- 
acteristics which  manifest  greater  complexity. 

The  fifth  member  of  our  series  will  be  represented  by 
a  rabbit,  or  some  other  mammal,  which  has  a  four- 
chambered  heart,  warm  blood,  and  other  characters  in- 
dicative of  a  great  complexity  and  a  high  order  of  de- 
velopment.    This  series  of  animals  now  stands : 

1    One-celled    animal.    2   Invertebrate.    3    Fish.   4   Reptile,    5 
Mammal. 


102  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACIIIXG 

This  series  represents  animals  now  living,  arranged 
according  to  tlie  order  of  their  complexity,  and  is  called 
the  zoologic,  or  taxonomic  series. 

Tlic  Phylogcnctic  Scries. — The  second  series  is  a 
series  of  animals,  arranged,  not  according  to  their  cDm- 
plexity,  but  according  to  a  totally  different  character- 
istic ;  namely,  the  order  in  which  they  began  to  exist 
upon  the  earth.  The  first  animals  that  appeared  upon  the 
earth  were,''jvithout  any  doubt,  one-celled  animals.  The 
evidence  of  the  particular  kind  is  not  very  definite,  for 
oiily'a  few  of  "the"  Protozoa  have  any  hard  parts  that 
are  at  all  likely  to  be  preserved  throughout  geological 
changes,  and  the  time  when  they  first  appeared  was  so 
very  long  ago  that  even  if  they  had  been  much  better 
adapted  for  preservation  than  they  are,  most  of  their 
structures  must  have  disappeared.  But  in  the  time  in 
which  the  rocks  that  are  called  Archean  were  formed, 
there  was,  in  all  probability,  no  other  animals  than  Pro- 
tozoa living. 

Age  of  Inveriehrates. — Then  there  came  a  time  when 
animals  of  more  than  one  cell  began  to  live.  These 
earliest  animals  of  many  cells  were  all  invertebrates, 
and  at  that  time  only  protozoa  and  invertebrate  animals 
were  living.  These  invertebrates  may  be  typified  by  a 
worm,  for  many  of  them  were  worms,  and  many  kinds, 
such  as  Brachiopods,  had  shells  which  have  been  pre- 
served. The  long  series  of  years  known  as  the  Silurian 
period  is  called  the  age  of  Invertebrates. 

Age  of  Fishes. — Then  there  came  a  time  when  "\"er- 


PERIODS  IN    CHILD  DEVLLUPMKNT  103 

lebrates  constituted  the  most  important  feature  in  the 
life  of  the  earth.  The  first  vertebrates  were  fishes.  The 
Age  of  Fishes  is  the  period  in  which  the  rocks  called 
the  Devonian  were  formed.  The  fishes  were  numerous, 
and  surpassed  in  activity  and  general  complexity  any  of 
the  invertebrates  that  lived  at  the  same  time. 

Age  of  Reptiles. — After  the  Age  of  Fishes  there 
came  an  Age  of  Reptiles,  which  represented  a  higher 
form  of  animal  life.  The  Age  of  Reptiles  is  the  time 
in  which  the  rocks  of  the  Alesozoic  age  were  produced. 
Mesozoic  time  is  sometimes  divided  into  three  periods 
and  the  rocks  that  correspond  to  tlic  three  periods  are 
called  the  Triassic,  Jurassic  and  the  Cretaceous.  Reptiles 
furnished  the  dominant  form  of  animal  life  in  this  age. 
Fishes  existed,  of  course,  but  the  reptiles  far  surpassed 
them  in  complexity  and  degree  of  development.  There 
were  many  reptiles  that  do  not  exist  now.  We  have 
living  only  four  orders  of  reptiles,  represented  by  the 
snake,  turtle,  lizard,  and  alligator;  but  in  the  Age  of 
Reptiles  there  were  at  least  ten  orders  represented,  and 
some  of  them  were  among  the  largest  animals  that  ever 
existed.  There  were  reptiles  in  the  water,  such  as 
the  Ichthyosaur  and  the  Plesiosaur ;  there  were  reptiles 
on  the  land,  such  as  the  Dinosaur;  and  there  were  flying 
reptiles,  such  as  Pterodactyls  of  many  kinds. 

Age  of  MauuuaJs. — After  the  Age  of  Reptiles  came 
the  Tertiary  period,  which  is  the  Age  of  Mammals. 
jMammals  now  took  the  place  in  the  life  of  the  earth 
that  had  been  held  by  reptiles.     ]\lany  kinds  of  mammals 


1U4  PK I  NCI  PL  lis   OF    TliACllIXG 

lived  then  that  no  longer  exist.  Some  forms  were  very 
large,  larger  than  any  animals  now  living  except  the 
whales. 

If  we  arrange  these  animals  in  a  series  according 
to  the  order  in  which  they  have  appeared  upon  the 
earth,  we  shall  have  the  following  arrangement : 

1  Protozoa  (single-celled  animals),  2  Invertebrates  (worms), 
3  Fishes,  4  Reptiles,  5  Mammals. 

This  is  called  the  phylogenetic,  or  geologic  series. 

The  Ontogenetic  Series. — Let  us  now  look  at  the 
series  of  changes  that  occur  in  the  development  of  a 
single  mammal.  If  we  watch  the  development  of  a 
rabbit  we  find  that  it  begins  as  an  egg,  which  is  a  single 
animal  cell,  and  is  comparable  in  complexity  with  an 
amoeba,  or  other  protozoan.  The  single  animal  cell  di- 
vides into  two,  and  the  two  into  four,  until  finally  there 
are  many  cells.  Tl:en  the  many  cells  arrange  them- 
selves into  layers,  called  the  ectoderm  and  the  endo- 
derm,  and  the  animal  has  a  central  body  cavity.  In  this 
condition  it  represents  a  degree  of  complexity  that  is 
manifested  by  a  worm,  and  no  one  could  predict,  without 
knowing  the  animal  by  which  the  egg  had  been  produced. 
that  it  would  ever  become  anything  else  than  a  worm. 
At  this  period  of  its  existence  it  has  no  characteristics 
except  those  that  belong  to  invertebrates. 

Tlic  Final  Step. — P)Ut  it  does  not  stop  here.  Verte- 
brate characters  begin  to  appear.  A  backbone  and  spinal 
cord  make  themselves  apparent,  but  the  vertebrate  char- 
acters are  at  first  essentially  those  of  a  fish  type.     The 


PERIODS   IX    CHILD  DEVELOPMENT  105 

heart,  when  it  is  first  formed  is  two-chambered,  the 
blood  is  sent  forward  to  gill  arches,  and  in  all  essential 
respects  the  animal  is  a  fish.  Afterward  the  heart  be- 
comes three-chambered,  the  gill  arches  disappear,  the 
blood  goes  to  the  lungs,  and  the  embryo  takes  on  the 
characters  of  a  reptile.  After  the  animal  passes  through 
the  stage  when  it  is  a  reptile,  the  heart  becomes  four- 
chambered,  two  occiptical  condyles  are  formed,  and  the 
other  characters  which  constitute  a  mammal  are  de- 
veloped. If  we  arrange  these  different  stages  of  the 
animal  in  the  order  in  which  they  appear,  we  shall  have 
the  following : 

1  Egg  (single  animal  cell),  2  Invertebrate  (worm),  3  Fish, 
4  Reptile,  5  Mammal. 

This  series  is  called  the  ontogenetic,  or  embryologic 
series.  It  is  a  series  of  stages  in  the  development  of  a 
single  animal.  If  we  examine  these  three  series  we  see 
that  they  have  exactly  the  same  stages  occurring  in 
the  same  order.  In  each  we  can  readily  distinguish  five 
stages,  and  we  might  liave  recognized  many  more  than 
five. 

Hariiioiiy  of  flic  Three  Scries. — How  arc  we  to  ac- 
count for  the  close  similarity  of  these  three  series,  since 
they  are  derived  from  totalh-  different  data?  One  is  a 
series  of  animals  living  at  the  present  time  arranged 
according  to  their  degrees  of  complexity.  Another  is 
a  series  of  animals  arranged,  not  according  to  their  com- 
plexity, but  according  to  the  order  of  their  appearance 
upon  the  earth.    Tlic  third  is  a  series  of  stages  occurring 


106  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

in  the  development  of  a  single  animal.  The  only  reason- 
able explanation  seems  to  be  that  the  embryo  passes 
through  the  stages  that  it  does,  from  the  simple  to  the 
complex,  because  the  ancestors  of  the  race  to  which  it 
belongs  were  developed  gradually  in  the  long  geologic 
ages  through  the  same  several  stages,  and  that  the  single 
animal  in  the  course  of  its  development  recapitulates  the 
history  of  the  development  of  the  race.  This  last  state- 
ment is  known  as  Von  Baer's  principle,  or  the  biogenetic 
law. 

Zillcr's  Theory. — Ziller  undertook  to  demonstrate  the 
same  or  a  corresponding  principle  with  reference  to  the 
mental  life  of  the  human  race.  He  undertook  to  show 
that  the  mental  life  of  an  individual  recapitulates  the 
mental  development  of  the  race.  Then  he  undertook  to 
show  that  we  might  make  a  scientific  course  of  study 
from  this  fact,  and  adjust  the  various  phases  of  instruc- 
tion to  the  particular  stage  of  development  in  which  the 
child  might  be  at  any  particular  time.  If  we  could  base 
our  course  of  study  upon  some  general  principle  by 
means  of  which  we  might  determine  what  things  are 
proper  and  what  are  improper  subjects  of  instruction  in 
the  education  of  children,  it  would  be  a  great  improve- 
ment over  anything  that  has  yet  been  done  in  educa- 
tion. 

The  Pre-human  Period. — Anthropologists  are  fairly 
well  agreed  that  we  can  discover  at  least  eight  stages 
in  the  development  of  the  human  race.  The  determina- 
tion of  the  stages  here  adopted  is  taken  from  Lewis  H. 


PERIODS   IX    CHILD  DEVELOPMENT  107 

Morgan.  The  first  stage  that  we  need  to  recognize  is 
the  iire-)uinian  stage,  in  which  the  human  race  or  its 
ancestors  h.ad  not  developed  articulate  speech.  Prohably 
in  this  pre-human  period,  the  ancestors  of  men  lived 
in  trees,  ate  roots  and  buds  and  vegetables,  as  well  as 
worms  and  other  small  animals  that  they  could  pick 
up.  There  were  no  companies  of  these  pre-human  an- 
cestors. Life  was  altogether  individual.  This  period 
terminates  with  the  adoption  of  articulate  speech  as 
a  means  of  communication. 

The  little  child  is  in  this  condition,  corresponding  to 
the  pre-human  period,  up  to  the  time  when  he  begins  to 
utter  his  first  words.  He  recapitulates  in  the  first  nine 
or  ten  months  of  his  life  this  whole  period  of  pre-human 
ancestry,  w^iich  is  farther  removed  and  vastly  longer  than 
any  period  of  human  history  than  has  occurred  since 
that  time. 

Older  Savagery. — The  first  human  stage  is  called  by 
]\Ir.  Morgan,  the  period  of  Older  Savagery.  It  begins 
with  the  adoption  of  articulate  speech  as  a  means  of 
communication,  and  terminates  with  the  emplovment  of 
fire  and  the  use  of  fish  as  an  article  of  food.  The  older 
savages  still  lived  in  trees,  wandering  little  from  the 
place  in  which  they  were  born,  and  subsisted  on  the 
same  kind  of  food  as  did  their  pre-human  ancestors. 
The  adoption  of  articulate  speech  greatly  favored  the 
development  of  mental  life,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  most 
important  fact  in  all  of  human  history. 

The  Child  as  an  Older  Savage. — The  little  child  enters 


lOS  1'kincii'Ij:s  of  teaciiixg 

upon  the  stage  of  his  development  corresponding  to  the 
older  savagery  when  he  hegins  to  utter  his  first  words. 
It  corresponds.  U>  the  time  extending  from  ten  months 
old  to  that  of  a  year  and  a  half  or  two  years  of  age.  This 
period  of  development  probably  lasted  from  twenty  to 
thirty  thousand  years,  and  the  child  recapitulates  in  his 
development  the  entire  history  of  the  race  for  that  period 
in  a  year  or  fifteen  months.  The  child  in  this  period 
of  his  existence  is  active,  enjoys  the  sensations  of  taste 
and  of  muscular  activity,  and  uses  his  vocal  organs  much. 
It  is  the  time  in  which  he  is  learning  to  talk  and  in  which 
his  mental  processes  develop  more  rapidly  than  in  any 
subsequent  period. 

Middle  Savagery. — The  third  stage  in  the  development 
of  the  race  is  the  period  of  middle  savagery.  This  period 
begins  with  the  adoption  of  fish  as  an  article  of  food,  and 
the  use  of  fire,  and  terminates  with  the  invention  of  the 
bow  and  arrow.  In  this  period  men  descended  from  the 
trees  and  ceased  to  be  tree-dwellers.  They  found  it 
advantageous  to  live  near  the  seashore  and  along  the 
banks  of  rivers.  Hence  it  is  evident  tliat  they  acquired 
the  habit  of  wandering  more  widely  than  had  been  the 
custom  before,  and  also  it  is  probable  that  they  began  to 
live  in  caves,  by  which  they  were  protected  from  the  at- 
tacks of  wild  beasts,  and  the  great  carnivorous  animals, 
which  were  their  principal  enemies. 

TJic  Child  as  a  Middle  Savage. — The  little  child  ap- 
pears to  be  in  the  stage  of  development  corresponding  to 
the  period  of  middle  savagery  in  the  years  from  two  to 


PERIODS   IX    CHILD  DEVELOPMENT  109 

four  or  five.  Tn  this  period  the  interests  of  a  child  lead 
him  to  wander.  1  le  becomes  a  truant,  running  away  from 
his  mother,  and  a  period  of  earl\-  truancy  is  rather  well 
marked.  He  likes  U>  throw  things,  and  he  suddenly  be- 
comes afraid  of  the  dark,  and  of  fur  bearing  animals, 
owls  and  other  large  birds. 

Later  Savagery. — The  fourth  period  is  that  of  the 
later  savager}-.  which  begins  with  the  invention  of  the 
bow  and  arrow,  antl  terminates  with  the  invention  of 
pottery.  In  this  period  man  became  essentially  a  hunter 
and  wandered  widely  from  home.  He  was  no  longer 
on  the  defensive  in  protecting  himself  from  wild  animals, 
but  assumed  an  aggressive  attitude  toward  animal  life. 
The  woman  stayed  at  home,  and  we  have  the  beginnings 
of  the  social  differentiation  of  the  sexes.  ]\Ian  was  the 
hunter,  woman  liecame  the  home  maker.  This  is  the 
age  also  in  which  man  began  to  inquire  into  the  origin  of 
things,  and  the  result  is  the  development  of  myth  and 
fable. 

The  Boz^'  and  Arrozv. — It  ought  to  be  noticed  here 
that  the  bow  and  arrow  has  been  invented  only  once, 
and  the  knowledge  of  its  use  was  carried  into  all  coun- 
tries where  it  is  now  found  by  the  people  as  they  mi- 
grated from  the  original  home  of  the  race.  Some  people, 
such  as  the  Australians,  never  invented  the  bow 
and  arrow,  and  had  no  knowledge  of  its  use.  They 
invented  the  boomerang,  which  serwd  the  same  purpose, 
but  it  was  not  the  bow  and  arrow.  The  belief  is  that  the 
Au.stralian  ancestors  separated  from  the  rc^t  of  the  human 


no  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

race  before  the  bow  and  arrow  was  invented.  The  use 
of  the  bow  and  arrow  is  found  all  over  Europe  and  Asia, 
over  nearly  all  of  Africa,  and  over  both  the 
Americas. 

Tlic  Clnld  as  a  Later  Savage. — The  period  of  child 
development  v\'hich  corresponds  to  the  later  savagery 
includes  the  earliest  years  of  school  life,  from  the  age  of 
five  and  a  half  or  six,  to  six  and  a  half  or  seven.  Boys 
like  to  throw  things  and  to  play  with  bows  and  arrows 
or  popguns.  Hunting  games  and  competitive  plays  begin 
to  be  enjo\ed.  A  dififerentiation  can  be  observed  between 
llic  plays  that  are  enjoyed  most  by  boys  and  by  girls. 
Girls  begin  to  enjoy  the  imitative  plays  which  corres- 
pond to  domestic  affairs.  All  children  of  this  age  are 
fond  of  fairy  tales,  and  this  fact  furnishes  justification 
for  laying  out  a  course  of  study  that  shall  include  for 
these  earliest  school  years  fairy  tales,  the  myths  of  Greece, 
the  Norse  legends,  and  Mother  Goose. 

Older  Barbarism. — The  fifth  period  is  the  period  of 
older  barbarism.  It  begins  with  the  invention  of  pottery 
and  ends  with  the  cultivation  of  plants  and  the  domestica- 
tion of  animals.  In  this  stage,  man  was  the  hunter  and 
became  the  warrior.  The  beginning  of  social  institutions 
is  to  be  looked  for  here,  in  the  fact  of  warfare  and  the 
consequent  necessity  for  men  to  work  together  and  to 
render  mutual  assistance,  although  social  life  did  not 
reach  its  most  characteristic  form  until  the  next  period. 
Woman  was  the  home  maker,  and  her  duties  were  limited 
to  those  of  domestic  life.    It  is  probable  that  pottery  was 


PERIODS  IN   CHILD  DEVELOPMENT  111 

the  invention  of  woman,  and  that  she  first  cuUivated 
plants  and  developed  agriculture. 

The  Child  as  an  Older  Barbarian. — The  years  of  a 
child's  life  that  correspond  to  this  period  of  older  bar- 
barism are  the  years  from  six  and  a  half  or  seven,  to 
about  eight  or  eight  and  a  half.  The  child  begins  to  need 
the  companionship  of  others  in  his  plays.  He  likes  to 
dig  in  the  ground  and  to  play  with  plastic  materials.  Mud 
pies  and  models  of  animal  forms  are  attractive  occupa- 
tions for  him.  He  is  on  his  way  to  becoming  socialized. 
Mimic  wars  and  stories  of  adventure  appeal  to  him.  There 
is  a  well  pronounced  differentiation  between  the  plays 
that  interest  girls  and  those  in  which  boys  find  delight. 

Middle  Barharisni. — The  sixth  period  is  that  of  middle 
barbarism.  It  begins  with  the  domestication  of  animals 
and  the  cultivation  of  plants,  and  ends  with  the  smelt- 
ing of  iron.  In  this  period  men  ceased  to  wander  so 
widely  as  heretofore.  The  cultivation  of  plants  enabled 
a  larger  number  of  people  to  subsist  in  one  place,  thus 
rendering  it  possible  for  a  complex  society  to  be  devel- 
oped, and  the  cultivation  of  the  fields  tended  to  prevent 
frequent  removals.  Warfare  became  a  more  serious  oc- 
cupation, and  by  the  necessity  for  cooperation  in  the  de- 
fense of  the  community,  tended  to  increase  the  social 
feelings  and  to  develop  the  tribal  and  community  life. 

The  Child  as  a  Middle  Barbarian. — The  years  of  a 
child's  life  that  correspond  to  the  period  of  middle  bar- 
barism are  approximately  from  the  age  of  eight  or  eight 
and  a  half  to  eleven.     The  child  is  contentious  and  likes 


112  l>Rl.\CIl'Li:S   OF    TEACHING 

to  quarrel.  He  has  a  fondness  for  domestic  animals  as 
pets,  and  school  gardens  may  profitably  be  included  in 
the  course  of  study.  The  boy  likes  to  hunt  and  fish. 
Sociology  becomes  a  prominent  part  of  the  child's  in- 
terest. The  child  needs  in  this  period  of  his  existence  to 
be  taught  concerning  the  fire  department,  the  police,  and 
the  various  social  services  which  the  community  renders 
to  him  as  an  individual. 

Later  Barbarism. — The  seventh  period  is  the  period 
of  later  barbarism,  it  begins  with  the  smelting  of  iron 
and  terminates  with  the  invention  of  the  written,  phonetic 
alphabet.  It  is  especially  characterized  by  the  develop- 
ment of  manufactures  and  the  growth  of  cities.  Here  we 
perceive  also  the  beginnings  of  national  life,  and  the 
development  of  literature  in  the  form  of  folk  tales  and 
histories  of  national  heroes. 

The  Child  as  a  Later  Barbarian. — The  years  of  a 
child's  life  that  correspond  to  this  period  of  later  bar- 
barism are  those  from  about  eleven  until  thirteen  or 
fourteen.  In  this  period  the  child  has  much  interest  in 
making  things,  and  in  the  stories  of  industry.  In  the 
period  of  later  barbarism  there  was  little  commerce ;  as  we 
should  expect,  then,  the  child  in  his  corresponding  years 
feels  little  interest  in  commercial  ventures.  Problems  in 
arithmetic  with  a  commercial  expression  have  little  at- 
traction for  him.  His  games  are  still  competitive  and 
fighting  games,  and  this  also  we  should  expect,  since  wars 
constituted  a  large  part  of  the  life  of  the  race.  The 
child  is,  however,  becoming  more  nearly  socialized,  and 


P1£RI0DS   I.\    CHILI)  DEVELOP. Ml-: XT  113 

depeiuls  more  u]K>n  the  cooperation  of  his  companions  in 
his  plays. 

Ciz'ili::alioii. — The  eighth  period  is  a  period  of  civilized 
life,  and  begins  with  the  invention  of  tiie  written  alphabet. 
It  is  characterized  by  the  great  and  sudden  development 
or  intellect,  of  national  life  and  of  commerce.  The  years 
of  a  child's  life  that  correspond  U>  it  are  those  approxi- 
mately from  twelve  or  fourteen  onward.  The  child  is 
now  read)  to  understand  the  life  of  the  race  and  to 
participate  in  its  activities. 

IVcakncss  of  the  Theory. — Such  is,  in  brief,  a  sketch 
of  the  Culture  Epoch  theory.  In  its  largest  outlines,  there 
can  be  little  doubt  of  its  truth.  It  is  impossible  to  under- 
stand child  nature  and  to  interpret  the  interests  and 
activities  of  children  without  a  recognition  of  the  facts 
here  enunciated.  However,  as  a  practical  basis  for 
making  a  course  of  study  and  for  determining  what  shall 
be  the  school  activities  of  children,  it  seems  to  have  little 
value.  The  attempt  to  make  a  course  of  study  from  a 
consideration  of  the  facts  enumerated  above  leads  us 
into  several  manifest  absurdities.  For  example,  the 
period  of  later  barbarism  terminates  with  the  invention 
of  the  alphabet.  The  period  of  child  life  that  corres- 
ponds to  this  period  is  the  time  just  preceding  adolescence, 
when  the  child  is  from  twelve  to  fourteen  years  old.  In 
order  to  be  consistent  in  making  our  course  of  study,  we 
should  not  teach  a  child  to  read  until  he  has  arrived  at 
this  period  of  life.  But  we  do  teach  him  to  read  much 
sooner,  and  we  believe  it  v.-ould  be  unwise  not  to  do  so. 


114  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

TJic  Earliest  Educative  Materials. — It  is  a  favorite 
assumption  of  the  advocates  of  the  Culture  Epoch  theory 
that  the  earliest  experiences  of  a  child  in  undertaking  a 
particular  subject  should  be  in  the  same  range  of  activi-  - 
ties  and  with  the  same  materials  that  primitive  men  em- 
ployed. In  beginning  the  experience  of  weaving,  he 
should  be  taught  to  weave  with  bark  or  reeds.  In  using 
tools,  the  first  tools  employed  should  be  pebbles  and  shells, 
because  these  are  the  first  implements  that  primitive  man 
employed.  In  the  development  of  water  craft,  the  child 
should  be  taught  to  make  a  raft  and  to  fasten  together  the 
logs  of  which  it  is  composed  with  withes,  because  primi- 
tive man  did  so. 

Why-  Primitive  Man  Used  Primitive  Materials. — It 
rather  seems  that  primitive  man  employed  these  materials 
because  he  had  no  better.  If  he  had  had  yarn  or  cotton 
thread  it  is  not  at  all  likely  that  he  would  have  used  bark 
and  reeds  as  weaving  materials.  So  if  he  had  had  axes 
and  nails  it  is  not  at  all  probable  that  he  would  have  used 
withes  to  fasten  the  logs  of  his  raft  together.  It  is  not 
that  he  was  lacking  in  intellectual  capacity  to  use  such 
materials,  but  such  materials  had  not  as  yet  been  dis- 
covered, nor  the  way  to  manufacture  them  been  found 
out.  The  materials  and  processes  were  not  adjusted  to 
the  degree  of  mental  advancement,  but  knowledge  was 
lacking.  The  person  who  invented  the  bow  and  arrow,  or 
who  invented  weaving  was  not  deficient  in  intellect.  It  is 
doubtful  if  any  invention  of  modern  civilized  man  is  a 
mark  of  greater  intellectual   capacity  than  was   the   in- 


PERIODS   IN    CHILD  DEVELOPMENT  115 

vention  of  the  bow  and  arrow,  flint  arrow-heads,  or  the 
phonetic  alphabet. 

PrimitiTc  Man  Not  Deficient  in  Intellect. — When  we 
consider  that  there  were  no  antecedent  discoveries  related 
to  these  things,  we  shall  see  that  mental  power  was  not 
lacking.  We  may  recognize  that  modern  men  are  superior 
to  primitive  men  mostly,  if  not  altogether,  in  consequence 
of  their  greater  knowledge.  Put  a  modern  man  into  the 
situation  of  a  primitive  man  and  it  is  doubtful  if  the 
genius  of  an  Edison  would  not  be  helpless  in  presence 
of  the  difficulties  confronting  him.  The  actual  processes 
carried  out  by  so-called  savages  of  the  present  day  are 
sufficient  to  arouse  the  wonder  of  any  man.  If  primitive 
man  had  had  modern  tools,  it  is  extremely  probable  that 
he  would  have  been  able  to  use  them. 

A  More  Fundamental  Objection. — But  a  more  funda- 
mental objection  must  be  stated.  The  Culture  Epoch 
theory  assumes  that  a  child  must  be  educated  according 
to  his  instincts  which  have  been  inherited  from  his  an- 
cestors. It  assumes  that  the  plays  of  children,  for  ex- 
ample, are  determined  by  their  heredity  and  that  educa- 
tion must  adapt  itself  to  the  line  of  interests  that  the 
instinctive  plays  have  mapped  out. 

Hozv  Interpret  Iniitatiz'c  Plays. — Hut  such  an  inter- 
pretation of  interests  and  of  plays  cannot  account  for 
imitation,  and  imitative  plays  constitute  much  the  larger 
number  of  plays  in  which  children  engage.  It  is  by  means 
of  imitation  that  a  reflex  passes  over  into  a  conscious 
voluntary  act,  and  all  early  processes  of  education  arc 


116  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

possible  only  because  a  child  can  imitate.  Instinct  means 
fixity  of  nervous  structure,  while  imitation  implies  plas- 
ticity. It  is  only  upon  a  plastic  nervous  structure  that 
education  can  produce  any  effect. 

Education  Depends  Upon  Plasticity  of  Organisation, 
Not  Upon  Inherited  Instincts. — Our  educational  processes 
and  courses  of  study  must,  then  be  based  upon  the  plas- 
ticity of  the  child's  nervous  organism,  and  not  upon  its 
fixed  structure.  It  must  regard  the  imitative  character 
of  children,  and  not  direct  its  energies  to  the  child's  in- 
stinctive activities.  The  child  in  his  education  must  absorb 
the  social  life  about  him,  and  not  act  out  the  life  pro- 
cesses of  his  ancestors.  The  most  valuable  inheritance  of 
the  child  is  not  the  experience  of  his  ancestors,  fixed  as 
instinct,  but  the  plastic  nervous  character  by  which  his 
ancestors  were  able  to  learn  new  things,  and  which  is 
a  necessary  condition  for  his  own  learning. 

Course  of  Study  Adapted  to  Intellectual  Capacity. 
Not  to  Racial  History. — Our  course  of  study  and  the  ex- 
ercises that  we  give  our  children  in  school  should  be 
adapted  to  their  intellectual  capacity,  and  not  at  all  to  the 
experiences  of  the  race  in  the  periods  that  correspond. 
The  experiences  of  the  race  were  not  determined  in  the 
largest  measure  by  their  intellectual  capacity.  The  race 
had  intellectual  capacity  that  would  enable  them  to  read 
and  write  long  before  the  phonetic  alphabet  and  the 
processes  of  reading  and  writing  had  been  invented. 

Education  Determined  h\  Present  Conditions.  Not  by 
Past  Experiences. —  it   is  our  purjjose,  through   tlie  pro- 


i'i:i^i(iiis  i\  (Mill. 11  l)l•\■|■,l,()l•^fF..\■|'  117 

cesses  nf  cHlucaiidii,  to  ()l)\iair  the  iiccessitx  for  llu'  cliild's 
passing  llii"(»iij;li  all  Uk-m'  iiriiiiiti\<.'  experiences,  and  to 
lead  him  by  a  >lu)rl  cut  lo  the  methods  of  thought  of 
the  ijresent  da_\ .  There  seems  to  be  nothing  gained  by  go- 
ing the  long  way  round.  What  we  really  wish  to  do  is 
to  educate  the  child  for  present  conditions  and  into  the 
life  of  the  present.  The  life  of  the  past  has  disappeared 
because  something  better  has  been  discovered.  It  would 
seem  to  be  a  mistake  to  base  our  teaching  upon  the  life 
of  the  past,  thereb\-  retaining,  as  far  as  we  are  able, 
that  experience  which  has  been  proved  to  be  inadequate, 
instead  of  substituting  directly  for  it  that  which  is  recog- 
nized as  better. 

Three  Periods  of  Intellectual  Development. — We  may, 
however,  readily  recognize  in  the  life  of  the  child  three 
well-marked  periods  of  intellectual  development.  The  first 
stage  is  the  period  of  infancy,  lasting  from  the  time  that 
the  child  is  born  mitil  the  time  of  the  second  dentition. 
Approximately,  this  is  described  b\'  the  time  from  birth 
until  the  child  is  seven  years  of  age.  Tt  is  easily  possible 
to  distinguish  two  periods  in  this  space  of  time ;  the 
period  of  earlier  infancy,  lasting  from  the  time  the  child 
is  born  until  the  first  set  of  teeth  are  obtained ;  and  the 
period  of  later  infancy,  lasting  from  the  time  of  first 
dentition  until  that  of  the  second. 

The  time  at  which  this  period  ends  is  not  the  same 
for  all  children.  We  ordinarily  send  children  to  school 
at  six  years  of  age ;  but  it  is  as  wrong  to  send  some 
children  to  school  at  six  as  it  is  to  keep  others  out  of 
school  after  the\-  are  five. 


118  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Period  of  Infancy. — The  period  of  infancy  is  a  period 
of  vivid  imaginings.  The  child  is  frequently  unable  to 
distinguish  an  idea  from  a  percept.  The  stick  is  a  real 
horse  to  him,  and  the  doll  is  a  real  child.  In  this  period 
of  infancy,  the  child  is  non-social.  His  plays  are  distinct- 
ly individual  plays  and  he  does  not  need  the  cooperation 
of  another  child  in  order  to  play.  Two  children  may  play 
at  the  same  time,  and  may  slide  down  the  same  cellar 
door,  but  one  waits  while  the  other  slides  down.  There 
is  no  necessity  for  cooperation.  The  plays  that  are  most 
attractive  are  sense  plays  and  imitation  plays.  The  child 
is  constantly  searching  for  new  sensations,  and  receives 
the  keenest  enjoyment  from  the  exercise  of  the  muscular 
sense.  This  accounts  for  his  tendency  to  jump  up  and 
down  without  moving  from  place  to  place.  The  ten- 
dency to  make  a  noise  arises  from  the  satisfaction  ex- 
perienced in  the  mere  exercise  of  hearing.  The  child 
likes  to  play  with  his  parents  and  with  older  people,  and 
at  first  appearance  this  looks  as  if  it  were  a  cooperative 
play.  Really  it  is  not,  but  the  activity  of  the  parent  toss- 
mg  the  child  about  is  merely  another  way  by  which  the 
child  obtains  a  new  sensation. 

Infancy  Ei^^oistic. — The  child  in  this  stage  is  purely 
selfish.  His  only  business  is  to  live,  and  he  makes  every- 
thing contribute  to  that  end.  There  is  no  room  in  his 
nature  for  generous  actions  or  altruistic  motives.  When 
such  actions  appear,  analysis  will  show  that  they  are 
imitative  actions,  or  arise  from  the  suggestion  of  some 
elder  person. 


PERIODS  IN    CHILD  DEVELOrMENT  119 

Criticism  of  Kindergarten  Theory. — A  criticism  has 
been  made  upon  the  kindergarten  that  appears  to  have 
some  validity.  The  criticism  is  that  the  kinder- 
garten undertakes  to  make  children  social  before  they 
have  reached  the  stage  of  development  in  which  it  is 
possible  for  their  social  natures  to  affect  their  actions. 
The  cooperative  games  of  children  in  the  kindergarten 
are  not  natural  to  the  children,  but  are  carried  on  at  tlie 
suggestion  of  the  teacher  and  by  a  process  of  imitation. 
Not  until  the  children  have  passed  the  period  of  in- 
fancy is  there  any  opportunity  for  the  development  of 
the  altruistic  spirit  and  the  social  nature. 

Period  of  Childhood. — The  second  period  of  child- 
growth  is  that  of  childhood,  extending  from  about  the 
age  of  seven  to  fourteen,  and  culminating  at  about  the 
age  of  eleven.  It  extends  from  the  time  of  the  second 
dentition  to  the  oncoming  of  adolescence.  The  limits  of 
this  period  may  vary  in  different  children  by  as  much  as 
two  years,  or  more.  This  period  is  approximately  cov- 
ered by  the  years  devoted  to  elementary  school  work. 
It  is  not  by  accident  or  chance  that  the  elementary  school 
course  covers  a  period  of  eight  years,  nor  is  it  chance 
that  a  few  schools  extend  the  period  to  nine  years  and 
that  others  shorten  it  to  seven.  The  child  is  a  different 
being  in  these  seven  years  from  what  he  was  in  the  first 
years  of  his  life.  The  characteristics  of  this  period  are 
better  manifested  in  boys  than  they  are  in  girls.  The 
child's  nature  has  changed,  and  he  begins  to  be  a  social 
being.     The  plays  most  favored  arc  tho-^e  that  demand 


120  I'KIKCU'LES   OF   TEACHING 

the  cooperation  of  other  children,  and  mostly  take  on 
the  character  of  competitive  plays.  Fighting  is  a  good 
example,  and  fighting  plays  are  characteristic  of  this 
period.  There  is  little  or  no  disposition  to  work  as 
teams.  One  hoy  tries  to  ontjump  or  outdo  another, 
tie  wishes  to  excel  for  himself,  and  is  little  actuated  to 
excel  for  his  side  or  for  his  school.  Emulation  is  a  strong 
motive  in  this  period,  and  there  is  no  really  good  reason 
for  refusing-  to  employ  it  as  a  motive  in  school  work. 

Period  of  Adolescence. — The  third  period  of  child- 
growth  is  the  period  of  adolescence,  which  begins  ap- 
proximately at  the  age  of  fourteen  for  boys,  and  a  year 
or  two  earlier  for  girls,  and  extends  to  the  twenty-first 
year.  It  is  the  period  that  is  covered  by  the  high  school 
and  the  college  course.  It  is  not  an  accidental  circum- 
stance that  high  school  and  college  life  is  so  very  differ- 
ent from  that  of  elementary  school.  The  adolescent 
IS  a  different  person  from  what  the  child  was.  A  great 
transformation  has  occurred  in  his  nature,  and  his  in- 
terests, aspirations,  and  motives  are  decidedly  changed. 
In  this  stage  the  adolescent  becomes  distinctly  social. 
Competitive  plays  are  still  prominent,  but  the  competition 
now  is  that  of  side  against  side,  party  against  party. 
The  individual  sinks  his  individuality  in  that  of  the 
team,  and  the  most  iiojinlar  plays  are  those  that  demand 
team  work.  Football  and  baseball  are  appropriate  games 
for  this  age.  They  are  not  so  for  younger  children,  and 
when  played  by  them,  are  rather  imitative,  than  team 
plays.     Love  plays  l)ecnnio  prominent  if  not  predominant. 


PERIODS  IN    CHILD  DEVELOPMENT  121 

This  is  the  age,  too,  when  young  people  begin  to  inquire 
into  the  nature  of  things,  and  speculative  studies  have  an 
attraction  for  them.  Political  economy  and  psychology 
are  favorite  subjects,  and  religious  conversion  takes  place 
usually  in  this  period. 

Special  Significance  of  Adolescence. — It  ought  to  be 
observed  that  in  our  modern  school  work  the  period  of 
adolescence  has  an  especial  significance.  One  of  the 
most  efficient  causes  in  bringing  man  up  to  the  state  in 
which  he  stands  at  the  head  of  the  animal  world  is  the 
prolongation  of  the  period  of  dependence,  or  infancy,  in 
the  large  sense  of  the  term.  The  prolongation  of  the 
period  of  dependence  allows  such  a  complete  adjustment 
that  the  mental  life  develops  in  a  way  that  would  other- 
wise be  impossible.  In  ancient  or  barbarous  society,  a 
child,  upon  entering  the  period  of  adolescence  is  ac- 
counted mature.  He  is  allowed  to  marry  and  to  become 
a  hunter  and  warrior  with  other  men  of  his  tribe.  In 
modern  cfvilized  society  such  is  not  the  case.  Although 
most  of  our  compulsory  education  laws  permit  the  youth 
to  discontinue  school  at  the  age  of  fourteen  and  go  to 
work,  thus  conforming  to  the  older  standard  of  maturity, 
the  young  man  is  not  allowed  to  vote  until  he  is  twenty- 
one,  and  the  young  woman  is  still  accounted  a  girl  and 
not  a  woman  until  long  after  she  is  twelve.  Modern 
civilized  society  adds  another  seven  vears  to  the  period 
of  dependence,  with  results  of  greatest  value  to  society 
as  a  whole.  Thi?  further  prolongation  of  the  period  of 
itifancv   allows   more    time    for    ndjnstnicnt    and    educn- 


122  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

tion,  and  it  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most  important  factors 
in  continuing  our  civiHzation. 

Synopsis. 

1.  The  biogenetic  law  asserts  that  every  animal  re- 
peats in  the  course  of  its  development  the  history  of  the 
race. 

2.  Ziller's  theory  asserts  similarly,  that  every  indi- 
vidual human  being  repeats  in  the  course  of  his  mental 
development  the  history  of  the  human  race. 

3.  A  scientific  course  of  study  must  recognize  the 
successive  stages  in  the  development  of  the  individual, 
and  present  the  proper  materials  for  each  stage  of  de- 
velopment. 

4.  Ziller's  theory  is  true  in  its  largest  features,  but 
of  no  practical  value  in  making  a  course  of  study. 
Other  circumstances  overshadow  the  importance  of 
racial  development. 

5.  Three  different  stages  in  the  development  of  the 
individual  must  be  recognized,  however,  and  these  are 
the  stages  now  provided  for,  first,  in  the  home  educa- 
tion of  infancy;  second,  the  elementary  education  of 
childhood ;  third,  the  adolescent  education  of  the  high 
school  and  college. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Theory  of  Play. 

IVliy  Study  Play? — We  need  to  study  the  plays  of 
children  for  two  reasons :  First,  because  we  can  learn 
more  about  children  by  studying  their  plays,  and  by  study- 
ing the  children  when  they  are  playing,  than  we  can  in 
any  other  way.  When  a  child  is  playing,  he  is  not  un- 
der restraint,  and  his  actions  are  a  true  index  to  his  char- 
acter. 

Onl\'  Play  Processes  Educatirc. — The  second  reason 
is  because  of  a  widely  discussed  theory  that  play  activi- 
ties of  children  are  the  only  processes  by  which  they  be- 
come educated.  The  theory  asserts  that  activities  which 
do  not  take  the  form  of  play  are  not  educative.  This  is 
implied  in  the  statement  that  children,  in  order  to  be 
educated,  must  be  interested  in  their  school  work.  The 
reasoning  bv  which  tliis  conclusion  is  reached  involves 
the  affirmation  of  some  or  all  of  the  following  propo- 
sitions : 

Educated  Only  by  Self-activity. — A  child  is  educated 
bv  means  of  his  own  self-activity,  which  is  manifested 
only  in  actions  that  originate  within  himself,  not  in  those 
which  arc  forced  upon  him  from  the  outside.  The  im- 
pulse to  self -activity  is  always  accompanied  by  a   feel- 

123 


1-4  I'KI.NCIl'LES   OF   TEACHING 

ing  liavintr  a  pleasant  tone,  which  we  may  call  interest. 
15ut  the  activities  in  which  a  child  ih  interested  arc 
those  which  take  the  form  of  play.  Hence  it  is  proper 
to  say  that  only  play  activities  can  call  forth  a  child's 
self-activity,  and  have  any  truly  educative  effect  upon 
him.  When  a  child  engages  in  tasks  at  the  command 
of  another,  and  is  not  interested  in  the  doing  of  them, 
his  self-activity  is  not  called  into  action,  and  the  result 
is  not  truly  educative.  It  is  rather  the  activity  of  the 
person  who  for  the  time  being  assumes  the  function  of 
taskmaster  that  is  manifested  in  the  activity  of  the 
children. 

JVrong  Idea  of  Play. — This  view  of  play  is  too  ex- 
treme. Such  a  definition  of  play  is  not  satisfactory.  It 
assumes  that  anything  which  the  child  likes  to  do  is 
play,  and  that  anything  which  the  child  does,  without  lik- 
ing to  do  it,  is  work.  It  assumes  that  the  distinction  be- 
tween play  and  work  resides  in  the  tone  of  the  feeling 
which  accompanies  the  activity.  This  is  the  commonly 
recognized  distinction  between  play  and  work.  Per- 
sons talk  about  certain  kinds  of  work  being  as  good  as 
play,  and  of  making  play  out  of  their  work,  implying 
that  when  the  work  that  is  to  be  done  affords  pleasure 
in  the  doing,  it  changes  into  play ;  and  that  any  activity 
which  is  disagreeable,  by  that  very  fact  takes  on  the  char- 
acter of  \vork. 

Real  Definition  of  Play. — A  much  more  satisfactory 
statement  of  the  distinction  between  play  and  work  may 
be  made  in  something  like  the  following  manner :     Play 


Tlili    TllEOKV    OF    I'LAY  125 

is  any  activity  whicli  is  undertaken  for  the  sake  of  the 
activity  itself,  and  not  at  all  for  the  result  which  is  to 
come  from  the  activit\ .  The  person  who  plays  is  paid 
for  his  exertion  hv  the  exertion  itself.  Work  is  any  ac- 
tivity which  is  undertaken  for  the  result  which  is  to 
follow   from  the  activity.  • 

Relation  of  Pleasantness  and  Unpleasantness  to  Play. 
— Pleasantness  and  unpleasantness  are  not  the  determin- 
ing factors  in  discriminating  work  from  play.  To  de- 
termine whether  a  given  form  of  activity  is  play  or 
work,  we  must  look  at  the  result  of  the  activity.  Work 
may  he  pleasant,  and  still  be  work.  Play  may  be  unpleas- 
ant and  still  be  pla\-.  although  when  such  a  condition  pre- 
vails, we  can  usually  discontinue  the  play.  To  the 
person  who  is  playing  a  disagreeable  game,  there  is 
usually  no  object  in  continuing  it. 

Speneer's  Theory  of  Play. — There  are  three  theories 
of  play  which  it  is  important  for  us  to  understand.  The 
first  is  Spencer's  theory,  which  will  be  found  stated  in 
his  Principles  of  Psychology,  \'olume  I,  page  628.  Mr. 
Spencer  assumes  that  play  is  the  activity  arising  out 
of  the  disposition  to  expend  a  su.r£lu^_aLeiaej:g^-  which  is 
generated  in  excess  of  the  demands  made  upon  it  by 
the  activities  of  the  animal,  and  by  the  physiological 
demands  of  the  body.  Thus  we  find  children  and  kit- 
tens and  other  young  animals  playing,  while  with  the  old 
men  and  cats  and  older  animals  play  is  rare.  The  young  of 
any  species  of  animal  generates  a  large  amount  of  energy, 
much   of  which  is  in  excess  of  the  ordinary  demands  made 


126  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

upon  it,  and  this  surplus  of  energy  is  demonstrated  by 
the  processes  of  growth.  Also,  when  a  child  or  a  kit- 
ten or  the  young  of  any  species  of  animal  becomes  sick 
or  enfeebled,  one  of  the  first  indications  of  sickness  is 
the  disinclination  to  play.  The  sick  condition  of  the 
animal  is  particularly  unfavorable  to  the  generation  of 
nervous  energy,  and  there  is  no  surplus  of  energy  de- 
manding expenditure  in  play. 

Criticism  of  Spencer's  Theory. — INIr.  Spencer's  theory 
has  been  seriously  criticised,  especially  by  Mr.  Groos, 
who  points  out  the  fact  that  chiklren  and  other  animals 
sometimes  play  to  the  point  of  complete  exhaustion,  long 
after  the  time  when  any  available  surplus  of  energy  has 
been  expended.  However,  it  really  seems  that  there  is 
a  very  large  measure  of  truth  in  Mr.  Spencer's  theory. 
It  certainly  is  not  all  the  truth  about  play,  but  it  does 
seem  to  contain  a  great  deal  of  truth. 

Groos'  Theory. — The  second  theory  of  play  is  that 
of  Groos,  which  is  elaborated  in  his  two  books.  The  Play 
of  Animals  and  the  Play  of  Man.  His  theory  is  that  play 
is  a  preparation  in  the  present^oiJ^^^  work  of  the  fu.ture. 
A  kitten  plays  with  flying  leaves  and  balls  of  }arn  and 
other  moving  things,  involving  the  same  activity  and 
cultivating  the  same  kind  of  skill  that  will  be  needed  for 
catching  mice  and  other  kinds  of  prey  when  the  kitten 
shall  have  become  a  mature  cat.  So  we  shall  find  the 
play  activities  of  children  involving  the  same  kind  of 
skill  necessary  for  engaging  in  the  occupations  of  man- 
hood,   The  play  activities  seem  to  arise  from  the  bring- 


THE    THEORY   OF    PLAY  127 

ing  forward  of  the  instincts  that  furnish  the  motives 
for  th.c  activities  he  fore  the  time  when  the  activities 
themselves  are  necessary.  Tlie  instinctive  activities  are 
brought  forward  into  the  infancv  period,  thus  allowing 
an  opportunity  for  skill  to  be  acquired  that  will  be  needed 
in  mature  life.  The  cat  will  not  need  to  exercise  her 
pre}  ing  instincts  until  she  is  six  months  or  more  old ; 
but  the  instincts  for  catching  prey  are  developed  in  the 
kittens  by  the  time  that  they  arc  three  or  four  weeks  old. 
So  through  play,  in  the  time  from  four  weeks  old  to  the 
time  when  they  are  six  months  old,  the  skill  demanded 
for  the  successful  pursuit  of  prey,  is  acquired. 

Criticism  of  Groos'  Theory. — The  truth  in  this  theory 
is  that  play  does  prepare  the  young  animal  for  the  ac- 
tivities of  mature  life.  But  Mr.  Groos  makes  the  as- 
sumption that  play  is  for  the  purpose  of  accomplishing 
this  result.  He  assumes  a  teleological  motive  which  can- 
not be  allowed.  It  does  not  explain  the  facts  that  ?klr. 
Spencer  brings  forward  as  evidence  of  the  truth  of 
his  theory,  nor  does  it  account  for  those  forms  of  play 
activities  which  have  no  counterpart  in  the  life  of  the 
mature  individual.  While  there  is  an  element  of  truth  in 
the  theory,  it  is  perhaps  the  least  valuable  of  the  three. 

Stanley  Hall's  TJicory. — The  third  theory  of  play  is 
that  of  G.  Stanley  Hall,  although  the  theory  was  stated 
in  almost  the  same  form  by  a  German  philosopher,  Laza- 
rus. 

This  theory  is  that  play  is  an  activity  in  the  young 
v.-hich  repeats  the  activities  of  the  ancestors  nf  thp  rarp 


128  PRIXCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

A  kitten  plays  with  moving  objects,  because  acting  in 
that  manner  toward  moving  objects  was  the  business  of 
ancestral  cats  in  catching  prey.  So  boys  like  to  hunt, 
in  play,  because  hunting  was  an  activity  pursued  for 
many  centuries  by  the  ancestors  of  the  bow  With  the 
boy  it  is  play,  but  witli  the  ancestors  it  was  a  business. 
The  instinct  to  hunt  became  fixed  in  the  constitution  of 
primitive  man  and  appears  in  his  descendants,  even  though 
the  act  of  hunting  as  a  business  has  disappeared.  The 
nervous  system  of  the  ancestors  became  adjusted  to  the 
activities  of  the  various  occupations  which  they  pur- 
sued, and  that  adjustment,  with  whatever  modifications 
of  the  nervous  system  it  involved,  was  inherited  by 
their  descendants. 

Criticism  of  Hall's  Theory. — There  appears  to  be  a 
good  deal  of  truth  in  this  theory.  The  particular  instincts 
which  find  expression  in  various  forms  of  pla\-  were 
probablv  acquired  by  the  ancestors  from  their  occupations. 
But  this  will  not  account  for  all  the  forms  that  play  ac- 
t^vit^•  assumes.  It  is  true  that  the  boy  will  play  hunting 
and  fighting  games,  and  this  may  be  accounted  for  by  the 
fact  that  the  ancestors  of  the  boy  hunted  and  fought. 
But  the  same  boy  will  play  games  that  involve  the  use  of 
the  telephone,  or  telescope,  or  locomotive,  or  train,  which 
occupations  were  unknown  in  ancestral  experience. 

Incompleteness  of  All  TJicories  of  Play. — The  differ- 
ence between  Stanley  Hall's  theory  and  Groos'  theory  is 
that  .Stanley  Hall's  theory  looks  to  the  past  for  the  origin 
of  play  activities,  while  Groos'  theory  looks  to  the  future. 


THE    THEOnV   OF    PLAY  129 

Hall's  and  Spencer's  theories  do  not  consider  the  same 
question  at  all.  There  can  be  no  conflict  between  Spencer 
and  Hall  in  this  matter  because  they  are  considering  dif- 
ferent things.  Spencer  considers  the  origin  of  the  play 
activity  itself,  while  Hall  discusses  the  particular  form 
that  the  activity  assumes.  It  seems  as  if  these  three  theo- 
ries are  not  mutually  exclusive  at  all.  In  some  degree 
they  may  be  made  to  supplement  each  other,  and  elements 
from  all  are  necessary  in  the  construction  of  any  satis- 
factory theory  of  play.  Perhaps  something  more  than 
is  involved  in  any  one  of  them  may  be  needed  to  make 
the  theory  of  play  complete. 

Two  Ways  of  dassifymig  Plays. — We  may  study  the 
plays  of  children  by  classifying  them  according  to  two 
characteristics :  First,  according  to  the  nature  of  the 
plays  themselves ;  or  second,  according  to  the  ages  of 
the  children  to  whom  particular  plays  are  most  attractive 
and  appropriate.  Certain  kinds  of  plays  are  most  attrac- 
tive for  children  of  one  age,  while  the  same  plays  lose 
their  attractiveness  when  the  children  become  older. 

Sense  Plays. — Considering  the  plays  in  themselves, 
we  shall  find  a  large  group  of  sense  plays.  The  exercise 
of  any  sense  in  a  moderate  degree  affords  pleasure,  and 
the  pleasure  thus  derived  is  sufficient  inducement  for 
the  exercise  of  the  sense  activity.  Thus  it  conforms  to 
our  definition  of  play,  and  we  may  properly  speak  of 
sense  plays.  A  sense  may  be  exercised  for  another  pur- 
pose than  the  mere  satisfaction  derived  from  its  exercise, 
but  when  such  is  the  case,  the  exercise  of  the  sense  is 


130  I'KIXCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

not  play.  But  in  many  cases  the  sense  is  exercised  for 
the  mere  pleasure  that  accompanies  the  exercise ;  and 
when  such  is  the  case,  the  exercise  is  truly  play. 

Toitch  Plays. — The  sense  of  touch  is  the  source  of 
many  plays.  We  like  to  feel  a  smooth  surface,  as  a 
smooth  piece  of  polished  glass,  or  the  polished  surface  of 
a  piano  case.  We  enjoy  the  feel  of  plush  or  velvet. 
Sometimes  pleasure  is  derived  from  rubbing  the  palm 
of  one's  hand  over  the  bristles  of  a  hair  brush.  A 
baby  puts  things  into  his  mouth,  not  for  the  nourishment 
to  be  thence  derived,  but  for  the  satisfaction  to  be  ob- 
tained by  the  exercise  of  the  sense  of  touch.  He  will  try 
to  put  a  doorknob  into  his  mouth  as  readily  as  he  will 
something  from  which  nourishment  is  to  be  derived. 
The  sense  of  touch  is  more  delicate  in  the  mouth  and 
upon  the  tongue  than  it  is  in  any  other  part  of  the  body. 

Gum  chewing  is  a  sense  play  in  the  sense  of  touch. 
People  chew  gum,  not  for  the  nourishment  that  is  to  be 
derived  from  it,  nor  for  the  taste ;  but  they  chew  gum 
for  the  satisfaction  of  feeling  it  with  the  mouth  and  teeth 
and  tongue.  It  is  one  of  the  best  examples  of  touch 
play.  vSplashing  in  the  water,  while  wading,  swimming, 
or  washing  is  largely  a  play  in  the  touch  sense.  The 
feeling  of  water  on  the  skin  is  sufficient  inducement  to 
do  those  things  which  bring  the  water  intoi  contact  with 
it. 

Temperature  Plays. — The  sense  of  temperature  is  the 
basis  of  many  plays.  We  like  ice  water  or  ice  cream. 
We  experience  the  sense  of  taste,  also,  in  ice  cream,  but 


THE    TIIEOKY   OF    PLAY  131 

the  taste  is  just  the  same  after  the  ice  cream  is  melted 
that  it  was  before;  yet  we  prefer  to  eat  our  ice  cream 
before  it  has  been  melted.  The  preference  that  we  man- 
ifest for  the  frozen  ice  cream  over  the  same  when  melted 
indicates  how  much  of  the  pleasure  is  a  temperature 
play.  So  we  like  hot  coffee,  or  hot  tea.  We  enjoy 
also  iced  tea  or  iced  coffee,  but  coffee  that  is  neither 
hot  nor  cold  contributes  little  to  our  enjoyment.  We 
like  to  feel  the  bracing-  air  of  winter  that  makes  our 
blood  tingle.  This  means  that  we  enjoy  the  cold  tem- 
perature, but  we  also  enjoy  the  sensation  of  warmth  ex- 
perienced when  we  come  into  the  house  and  stand  by  a 
hot  stove.  Wq  enjoy  a  hot  bath  or  a  cold  bath,  and  when 
we  experience  either,  we  have  a  combination  of  two  kinds 
of  play,  a  touch  and  a  temperature  play.  When  the  tem- 
perature is  approximately  that  of  the  skin  we  experience 
a  touch  play  only. 

Taste  Plays. — Taste  is  the  source  of  many  plays.  We 
eat  candy,  not  for  the  nourishment  derived  from  it,  but 
for  the  satisfaction  obtained  in  the  exercise  of  the  sense 
of  taste.  The  same  thing  is  true  in  large  measure  with 
anything  we  eat  that  is  seasoned  to  the  taste.  The  little 
boy  who  defined  salt  as  the  thing  which  makes  your  po- 
tatoes taste  bad  when  you  don't  put  any  on.  was  not  far 
from  the  truth.  The  potatoes  would  furnish  just  as 
much  nourishment  without  the  salt  as  thcv  do  with  it, 
but  wc  should  not  experience  the  taste  play  without  the 
salt  or  other  seasoning.  It  is  safe  to  sav  that  a  large 
part  of  our  eating  is  in  the  nature  of  a  taste  i)lay. 


132  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

Equilibriiun  Plays. — Equilibrium  furnishes  still  more 
plays.  Children  sometimes  whirl  around  until  they  be- 
come dizzy  for  the  sake  of  experiencing  the  dizziness. 
This  method  of  exciting  the  sensation  of  dizziness  is 
associated  with  a  movement  play,  but  the  dizziness  is 
an  equilibrium  play.  Walking  on  the  rails  of  a  railroad 
track  is  another  manifestation  of  a  play  of  equilibrium. 
Whether  the  satisfaction  derived  from  turning  hand- 
springs, or  standing  on  one's  head,  or  performing  other 
acrobatic  feats  can  be  classed  with  equilibrium  plays 
may  be  questioned.  Probably  the  greater  part  of  such 
activity   is   another  kind  of  play. 

Muscle  Plays. — The  exercise  of  the  muscles,  giving 
rise  to  the  muscular  sensation  is  another  kind  of  play. 
The  movement  of  one's  own  body  in  running  or  jump- 
ing or  any  other  kind  of  vigorous  exercise  is  a  muscle 
play.  This  is  the  kind  of  play  that  serves  Spencer  par- 
ticularly well  as  his  illustration  of  the  origin  of  play. 
Dancing  is  placed  here,  at  least  in  part,  The  exercise  of 
the  muscles,  whenever  satisfaction  is  afforded  by  their 
exercise,  is  a  muscle  play. 

Movement  Plays. — But  there  is  another  kind  of  play 
which  involves  a  movement  of  one's  own  body  that  is 
not  a  muscle  play  and  which  may  properly  be  called  a 
movement  play.  It  is  illustrated  by  such  movements  as 
riding  in  a  merry-go-round,  jumping  from  an  elevation, 
sliding  down  a  banister,  or  sliding  down  a  straw  stack, 
Here  belongs  also  in  large  measure  the  satisfaction  de- 
rived from  riding,  driving,  bicycling,  automnbiling,  skat- 


THE   THEORY   OF    PLAY  133 

ing,  coasting,  or  riding  in  a  rapidly  moving  railroad  train. 
In  some  of  tliese  forms  of  amusement,  especially  those 
that  demand  muscular  activity,  the  movement  play  is  as- 
sociated with  a  muscle  play. 

Plays  ill  Moving  Bodies. — Besides  the  movement  of 
one's  own  body,  there  is  a  kind  of  play  that  consists  of 
moving  other  things  about.  Such  plays  are  throwing 
a  ball,  skipping  stones  on  the  water,  knocking  over 
chairs  or  throwing  things  from  a  window  or  down  a 
well.  These  occupations  are  very  attractive  to  children 
and  furnish  them  many  plays.  Tearing  paper  and  many 
of  the  destructive  plays  of  children  are  of  this  nature. 

Sight  Plays. — Many  important  plays  arise  from  the 
exercise  of  the  higher  senses,  seeing  and  hearing.  We 
like  to  let  the  light  into  our  eyes,  and  we  like  to  see 
things.  The  mere  exercise  of  the  sense  of  sight  is  a 
pleasure,  as  we  can  easily  determine  by  observing  how, 
in  a  dimly  lighted  room,  every  one  will  face  the  light. 
Confinement  in  darkness  is  a  great  punishment.  Monot- 
ony becomes  w^earisome,  and  we  experience  pleasure  from 
the  appearance  of  color  in  the  grass  and  in  the  trees 
Vihen  spring  comes.  Colored  flowers  attract  us.  We 
appreciate  highly  the  exercise  of  the  color  sense,  and 
seeing  color  is  a  sensation  play.  We  find  pleasure  in 
looking  at  the  rainbow^  or  the  solar  spectrum  as  it  is 
cast  by  a  prism.  We  enjoy,  also,  looking  at  things 
through  a  prism,  and  experiencing  the  virtual  spectrum 
thus  disclosed.  Colored  pictures  on  our  walls  please  us. 
both  by  their  color  and  by  the  forms  they  represent.  In  the 


134  I'RIXCIPLKS   OF   TEAClIIxN'G 

])lay  oil  the  color  sense  and  the  sense  of  sight  we  have 
the  beginning  of  our  appreciation  of  art,  both  pictorial 
and  plastic.  Enjoyment  of  art  is  a  play  of  the  sense  of 
sight,  and  the  artist  is  a  player. 

Hearing  Plays. — Nearly  the  same  thing  may  be  said 
of  hearing  that  has  been  said  of  sight.  Children  like  to 
make  a  noise  merely  for  the  sake  of  hearing  it.  A  baby 
likes  to  knock  things  on  the  floor,  and  a  boy  will  pound 
two  tin  potlids  together  for  the  purpose  of  enjoying  the 
excruciating  noise  thus  produced.  It  is  as  satisfying 
to  the  boy  as  is  the  finest  music  to  some  other  people. 
African  savages  that  pound  on  tomtoms  are  playing  in 
the  same  way.  Some  pianos  sound  like  tin  pans  and  be- 
tween the  pianos  that  sound  like  tin  pans  and  those 
that  do  not  there  is  a  difference  only  in  degree.  We 
shall  thus  see  that  all  of  our  appreciation  of  music  grows 
out  of  this  play  in  the  sense  of  hearing,  and  is  merely  an 
elaborated  form  of  it.  In  this  way  we  have  indicated 
the  origin  of  music,  and  we  know  that  it  is  not  a  sud- 
den development  in  the  race. 

Imitation  Plays. — Besides  the  sense  plays,  we  have 
a  large  group  of  imitation  plays.  The  child  is  essentially 
an  imitative  animal,  and  the  disposition  to  imitate  the 
occupations  of  older  people  appears  very  early.  Chil- 
dren imitate  the  occupations  of  their  parents  and  of 
other  persons.  Housekeeping  is  almost  an  universal  play, 
because  housekeeping  is  almost  an  universal  business. 
Playing  with  dolls  is  accounted  for  on  the  basis  of  imi- 
tation rather  than  because  of  an  inherited  maternal  in- 


THE    THEORY   OF    PLAY  13o 

stinct.     The  maternal   instinct  scarcely  develops  before 
the  period  when  dolls  are  laid  aside. 

Examples  of  Imitation.— Boys  will  imitate  the  occu- 
pations of  men  whom  they  see  at  work.  They  will  build 
houses,  make  bricks,  run  engines,  play  train,  blacksmith, 
drive  horses,  and  plow.  Every  occupation  that  comes 
within  the  observation  of  children  will  be  imitated.  \\'e 
notice  the  imitations  of  children  most  explicitly  when 
the  occupations  that  are  imitated  are  comparatively  rare 
and  unusual.  When  a  circus  comes  to  town,  all  the  boys 
for  the  next  three  days  will  play  circus,  and  will  be  ably 
assisted  by  their  sisters.  Every  boy  wants  to  be  a  clown 
or  a  daring-  bareback  rider.  Keeping  store  is  a  favorite 
imitative  play,  and  playing  school  is  another  that  is 
almost  universal  among  children  of  school  age.  or  just 
before  it.  Sometime  in  their  lives  all  children  have  played 
church,  and  preached  a  sermon,  and  carried  out  the  full 
program  of  religious  exercises.  They  have  imitated  a 
funeral  occasion,  and  doubtless  buried  a  favorite  doll. 
It  is  quite  customary  for  boys  on  a  farm,  about  the  time 
of  the  annual  slaughtering  of  hogs,  to  carry  on  a  butch- 
ering of  their  own,  using  rats  or  other  animals  instead  of 
hogs.  We  have  read  of  boys  who  imitated  the  events  of  an 
execution  by  hanging,  to  the  imminent  danger  of  the  sub- 
ject of  their  play. 

Unable  to  Account  for  Imitation. — Perhaps  imitation 
is  the  source  of  a  larger  number  of  plays  than  is  any 
other  principle.  Neither  INIr.  TTall's  theory  nor  Mr. 
Groos'   can    account    for   the   disposition   of   children   to 


136  PKIXCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

play  store,  nor  to  play  train,  nor  to  play  church,  nor  do 
the  imitative  plays  corrohorate  either  theory.  Neither 
of  these  plays  is  a  repetition  of  ancestral  experience  in 
any  proper  sense  of  the  word,  nor  can  we  see  that  any 
one  of  these  plays  is  a  preparation  for  anything  that  is 
likely  to  come. 

Memory  Plays. — Some  plays  are  more  or  less  intel- 
lectual. They  consist  in  the  exercise  of  the  mental 
processes  merely  for  the  sake  of  exercising  them.  Mem- 
ory exercises  are  favorite  forms  of  play.  The  remem- 
hering  of  Mother  Goose  rhymes,  nonsense  jingles,  or 
counting-out  rhymes  are  partly  of  this  kind.  So  older 
persons  sometimes  play  memory  games.  Games  some- 
what similar  to  The  House  that  Jack  Built  are  common. 
My  Aunt's  Garden.  Key  to  the  King's  Garden.  The  Little 
Man's  House  are  game?  of  this  kind  that  may  he  found 
described  in  almost  any  book  of   Fireside  Amusements. 

Imagination  Plays. — Imagination  furnishes  a  basis  for 
a  large  number  of  plays.  Here  may  be  classed  all  fairy 
tales,  day  dreams,  the  reading  of  stories  classed  as  fic- 
tion, except  that  in  some  cases,  other  elements  than 
imagination,  and  consequently  other  plays  than  imagina- 
tive plays  are  involved  in  their  reading.  Imagination  also 
includes  the  plays  in  which  there  is  self-illusion.  The 
broomstick  is  to  the  boy  a  real  horse,  through  the  ex- 
ercise of  imagination,  and  many  of  the  plays  of  children 
are  imaginative  plays. 

Other  Plays. — The  will  is  sometimes  made  the  basis 
of  play.     Boys  dare  each  other,  and  taunt  each  other 


THE   THEORY   OF    PLAY  137 

into  doing  what  they  would  not  otherwise  attempt.  So 
experiments  with  tlie  feehngs  take  the  form  of  play. 
Listening  to  ghost  stories  is  partly  a  play  with  the  feel- 
ing of  fear.  Persons  enjoy  being  scared  just  a  little. 
Some  persons  like  to  read  books  that  make  them  weep 
and  enjoy  listening  to  the  dramatic  rendering  of  plays 
which  have  the  same  effect.  Ordinarily  weeping  is  the 
expression  of  sorrow,  but  in  such  cases  as  those  just 
mentioned,  an  experiment  with  the  feelings  that  causes 
weeping  is  a  real  play. 

Plays  of  Infancy. — Leaving  now  the  study  of  plays 
in  themselves,  we  shall  be  able  to  understand  the  nature 
of  children  more  perfectly  if  we  group  their  plays  ac- 
cording  to   another   characteristic.      We   shall    find   that 
the  plays  of  children  up  to  the  age  of  about  seven  vears 
are  individual  plays.     The  first  and  the  most  numerous 
kind  is  the  sense  play,  and  the  next  in  importance  is  the 
imitative  play.     The  little  child   is   not  a  social   animal. 
Even  when  he  is  playing  with  his  parents,  he  is  using 
the  parents  as  the  source  and  means  of  a  new  sensation, 
or  it  is  an  individual  sense  play.     Two  children  may  play 
in  the  same  place  and  at  the  same  time,  but  such  play 
is  not  necessarily  a  cooperative  play.     Sometimc>  in  imi- 
tative plays  it  is  difficult  for  us  to  realize  tliat  the  plays 
are  essentially  individual,  because  the  individual  element 
is  obscured  by  the  cooperative  nature  of  the  occupation 
which   is   imitated.     Even   fighting,   with   little   children, 
is  not  a  cooperative  play.     Little  children  seldom  fight. 
and  v.hcn  thev  do.  it  is  tisuallv  becau'^e  one  child  wishes 


138  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

to  take  something  that  the  other  child  possesses,  and  the 
resulting  combat  is  not  a  play,  nor  a  desire  to  fight  for 
the  sake  of  fighting,  but  fighting  for  the  possession  of 
something  desired. 

Plays  of  Childhood. — With  the  period  of  childhood, 
from  seven  to  fourteen,  and  varying  as  much  as  two  years 
either  way,  a  different  kind  of  play  appears.  Individual 
and  sense  plays  continue,  but  other  plays  not  before  en- 
gaged in,  except  very  slightly  in  imitation,  now  become 
the  dominant  feature  in  play.  The  plays  that  are  char- 
acteristic are  cooperative  plays  They  demand  the  co- 
operation of  other  children  of  the  same  age.  The  child 
begins  to  forsake  the  companionship  of  his  parents,  and 
attracts  to  himself  the  companionship  of  other  boys.    The 

most  characteristic  of  these  pla}s  are  competitive,  or 
fighting  plays.     One  boy  cannot  fight  unless  another  boy 

agrees  to  fight  witli  him.  So  each  boy  tries  to  e.xceJ  all 
other  boys  in  whatever  he  undertakes.  He  tries  to  jump 
farther,  or  run  faster,  or  climb  higher,  or  shout  louder 
than  all  other  boys.  It  is  one  boy  against  another  boy, 
or  against  all  other  boys. 

Competitive  Plays. — This  competitive  instinct  may  be 
exemplified  in  other  ways  than  physical  competitions.  It 
may  be  involved  in  mental  processes,  not  merely  in  ex- 
celling other  children,  but  in  excelling  one's  self.  The 
competitive  instinct  may  be  applied  to  the  solution  of 
puzzles,  or  of  problems  in  arithmetic,  w'hose  attractive- 
ness for  some  children  seems  to  lie  in  the  opportunity 
furnished  for  an  exercise  of  this  instinct.     A  large  part 


THE   THEORY   OF    PLAY  139 

of  tlic  interest  manifested  In  children  in  llie  older  schools 
in  the  stndy  of  arithmetic  and  spelling-  was  of  this 
nature.  The  C(jmi)etitive  instinct  was  employed  very 
effectively  in  leaching  spelling,  hy  means  of  spelling 
matches  and  spelling  schools.  Being  strong  and  general, 
there  seems  to  be  no  valid  objection  to  making  a  proper 
use  of  this  competitive  instinct  in  school  work. 

Plays  of  Adolescence. — When  children  reach  the 
age  of  adolescence,  another  kind  of  play  begins  to  make 
itself  manifest.  The  individual  and  the  sense  plays  con- 
tinue, but  the  competitive  plays  take  on  a  new  character. 
Instead  of  being  individual  competitive  plays,  they  be- 
come team  plays.  It  is  through  the  activities  of  these 
cooperative  team  plays  that  the  adolescent  becomes  so- 
cialized. The  best  examples  of  competitive  team  plays 
are  football,  baseball,  basketball,  and  hockey.  Here  the 
individual  must  sink  his  individuality  in  the  success  of 
the  team.  The  coach  is  constantly  called  upon  to  dis- 
courage  the  making  of  grand  stand  plays.  So  there  are 
debating  teams  and  literary  contests  and  school  compe- 
titions in  which  the  competitive  team  feature  is  promi- 
nent. 

Football  and  Price  Fighting. — Some  persons  have  de- 
clared their  inabilitx"  to  distinguish  between  football  and 
prize  fighting.  T.oth  are  competitive  games,  but  football 
is  a  team  play  while  prize  fighting  is  an  individual  play. 
The  prize  fighter  is  an  example  of  retarded  development. 
His  social  nature  is  arrested  in  the  stage  of  the  pre- 
adolescent  period  and  he  could  never  excel  as  a  football 


140  PRI^'CIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

player.     It  would  be  impossible  for  him  to  sink  his  indi- 
viduality in  the  work  of  the  team. 

IVIiy  Little  Boys  Cannot  Play  Football. — Boys  below 
the  age  of  fourteen  cannot  play  football  or  baseball  suc- 
cessfully. When  such  games  are  played  by  boys  below 
this  age  they  are  imitative,  rather  than  team  plays.  The 
fact  that  imitation  leads  to  the  playing  of  almost  any 
kind  of  a  game  is  a  source  of  very  serious  entanglement 
and  misunderstanding  of  the  nature  of  the  games  played. 
A  cooperative  play  or  occupation  may  be  imitated  as 
truly  as  are  individual  occupations,  and  the  cooperative 
character  of  the  original  frequently  misleads  us  about 
the  imitative  origin  of  the  play. 

Love  Plays. — In  the  adolescent  period,  another 
kind  of  play  becomes  of  great  importance.  This  is  the 
love  play,  a  good  example  of  wdiich  is  found  in  dancing. 
Dancing,  besides  the  love  play,  involves  a  movement  play 
and  a  muscle  play :  but  in  the  adolescent  period  the  love 
play  feature  becomes  prominent.  Any  kind  of  a  play 
in  which  the  cooperation  of  some  person  of  the  opposite 
sex  is  demanded  may  be  considered  a  love  play.  We  must 
class  with  the  love  plays  the  reading  of  novels  in  which 
the  love  story  is  prominent.  We  have  in  such  classes  of 
fiction,  both  the  imagination  play  and  the  love  play  :  but 
it  will  be  found  that  the  love  story  is  especially  attractive 
to  adolescents,  while  it  is  usually  quite  distasteful  to 
children  before  the  adolescent  period.  We  must  class 
with  the  love  plays,  also,  such  social  functions  as  picnics, 
parties,  and  balls.     These  are  particularly  attractive  to 


THIi;   THEOKV    OF    I'LAV  141 

young  people  in  the  adolescent  period,  and  when  they  con- 
stitute an  episode  in  the  experience  of  pre-adolescents, 
we  must  consider  them  as  imitative  plays.  While  the 
individual  and  sense  plays  of  the  period  of  infancy,  and 
the  individual  competitive  play  of  the  period  of  child- 
hood persist,  the  adolescent  period  is  characterized  by 
the  introduction  of  two  new  elements  that  shadow  forth 
imperative  interests  in  the  life  of  the  race,  the  team  play 
and  the  love  play. 

Synopsis. 

1.  The  study  of  children's  plays  enables  us  to  under- 
stand the  children  better  than  we  can  in  any  other  way. 
In  play,  children  are  unrestrained  and  undirected,  so 
that  they  manifest  their  real  nature. 

2.  Play  is  the  performance  of  any  activity  that  is 
undertaken  for  the  sake  of  the  activity  itself.  Work 
is  any  activity  that  is  undertaken  for  the  result  to  be 
accomplished  by  it.  The  pleasantness  and  unpleasantness 
of  the  activity  does  not  distinguish  play  from  work. 

3.  Plays  may  be  classified  according  to  the  functions 
exercised.  We  may  distinguish  sense  plays,  imitative 
plays  and  mental  plays. 

4.  Plays  may  be  classified  according  to  the  ages  of 
children  to  whom  they  are  of  most  interest.  We  may 
distinguish  the  plays  of  infancy,  of  childhood,  and  of 
adolescence. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

Interest, 

The  plays  of  children  are  manifestations  of  their 
various  interests,  and  we  can  recognize  what  interests 
the  children  feel  by  observing  their  plays. 

Value  of  Interest. — All  teachers  agree  upon  one  thing : 
That  is,  that  if  a  child  is  interested  in  his  lessons  he  will 
learn  much  more  rapidly  and  with  much  less  effort  than 
if  not.  Starting  from  this  point,  one  school  of  educa- 
tional philosophers,  whom  merely  for  convenience  we 
shall  call  the  Interest  people,  make  some  rather  startling- 
deductions.  They  say,  in  the  first  place,  that  all  school- 
work  should  be  interesting  to  the  children ;  that  only 
those  subjects  in  which  the  children  are  interested,  have 
for  them  any  educative  value ;  that  if  a  child  is  not  in- 
terested in  any  particular  subject  it  is  evidence  that  such 
subject  is  not  appropriate  for  him  to  study  at  that  time ; 
that  if  he  is  not  interested  in  the  subject,  it  shows  that 
he  is  not  in  the  proper  stage  of  development  to  derive 
benefit  from  its  study. 

Interest  Determines  .111  Seluwl  J]^ork.—]n  this  way 
the  interest  of  the  cliild  becomes  the  predominant  factor 
in  selecting  materials  for  a  course  of  study,  and  for  ar- 
ranging the  order  in  which  they  shall  be  presented.     All 

142 


IXTKKICST  143 

school  work  takes  on  the  I'onn  of  jjUiv,  allhough  it  will 
be  remembered  that  the  Interest  people  define  play  as 
any  activity  that  gives  pleasure,  or  is  accompanied  by 
a  feeling  having  a  pleasurable  tone.  The  course  of  study, 
under  the  conception  of  the  Interest  people,  cannot  be 
any  fixed  and  definite  statement  of  things  to  be  done, 
but  all  school  work,  from  the  lowest  to  the  highest,  be- 
comes elective.  There  is  no  thought  in  this  method  of 
procedure  of  making  the  child  conform  to  the  community 
ideal,  and  modifying  his  natural  disposition,  but  the 
idea  carried  out  in  its  ultimate  conclusion  leads  to  the 
development  of  the  natural  disposition  of  the  child  with- 
out reference  to  the  community  ideal.  Perhaps  it  is  the 
influence  of  this  idea  which  lies  at  the  basis  of  the  recent 
development  of  elective  courses  in  our  high  schools. 

Argiiuicv.t  of  the  IVUl  People— V^ut  there  is  another 
group  of  people  who  hold  a  dififerent  opinion  about  the 
purpose  of  school  life.  For  our  present  purpose,  and 
merely  as  a  matter  of  convenience,  we  may  designate 
tliem  as  the  Will  people.  They  assert  that  the  fact  a 
child  is  interested  in  a  particular  thing  is  rather  a  reason 
why  it  should  not  be  made  the  basis  of  instruction  in 
school,  than  that  it  should.  If  a  child  is  interested  in  a 
particular  kind  of  study,  he  will  learn  about  it  without 
any  teaching.  It  is  a  good  th.ing  for  a  boy  to  flv  kites 
and  to  play  ball,  and  much  benefit  may  be  expected  to 
come  from  learning  to  play  these  games.  Rut  instead 
of  establishing  courses  in  kite-flying  and  ball-playing 
in   school,  the  kite-flying  and  ball-playing  mav  be   left 


144  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

to  take  care  of  themselves,  and  the  school  can  turn  its 
attention  to  teaching  something  else  that  the  child  in  all 
probability   will  not  otherwise  learn. 

School  Should  Train  to  Do  Disagreeable  Things. — 
The  Will  people  say  that  life  consists  of  many  hard, 
disagreeable  things ;  that  the  child  must  learn  to  do  these 
disagreeable  things,  and  it  is  the  function  of  the  school 
to  prepare  him  for  performing  such  actions  in  life.  The 
school  should  devote  itself  especially  to  teaching  those 
things  in  which  the  child  is  not  particularly  interested, 
but  which  it  is  necessary  that  he  should  know  in  order 
to  become  a  useful  citizen.  This  is  really  the  justification 
for  the  establishment  of  a  school. 

Training  the  J  Fill. — The  Will  people  say  also,  that 
if  the  child  is  to  spend  his  energy  in  school  doing  only 
those  things  that  are  pleasant  for  him,  there  is  no  oppor- 
tunity for  the  development  and  training  of  the  will.  That 
he  must  be  trained  to  have  a  strong  will  and  do  disagree- 
able things  in  order  that,  when  the  occasion  arises,  he 
may  be  willing  to  choose  the  disagreeable  and  difficult, 
rather  than  the  easy  and  pleasant  things.  He  must 
learn  to  do  his  duty  because  it  is  his  duty,  and  not  be- 
cause it  is  pleasant  for  him  to  do  it.  This  is  the  most 
important  function  of  school  work ;  and  unless  the 
school  makes  of  its  pupils  men  of  strong  wills,  ready 
to  choose  the  disagreeable  and  difficult,  it  has  utterly 
failed  in  its  undertaking. 

Methods  of  Teaching  Should  Train  the  Will. — Not 
only  must  the  subjects  of  instruction  be  those  in  which 


Interest  145 

the  chiklren  feel  little  natiiral  interest,  but  the  methods 
of  teaching-  would  l)etter  accentuate  the  uninteresting 
character  of  school  work.  The  things  to  be  learned 
would  better  be  learned  in  the  more  difficult,  rather  than 
the  easier  way.  The  more  difficult  the  subject  is  made 
in  school,  provided  that  it  is  learned  well,  the  better  is 
the  instruction,  according  to  the  views  of  the  Will 
people.  It  furnishes  a  better  opportunity  for  the  de- 
velopment of  will  power.  In  fact,  to  cultivate  the  will 
in  school  it  does  not  make  very  much  difference  what 
you  study,  just  so  it  is  a  something  that  you  do  not  like. 

Rejoinder  of  the  Interest  People. — To  these  proposi- 
tions of  the  Will  i)eople,  the  Interest  people  make  a  re- 
joinder. They  say  that  to  keep  a  boy  doing  disagreeable 
tasks  is  not  a  cultivation  of  the  will  of  the  boy,  but 
rather  the  will  of  the  teacher.  The  will  can  be  cultivated 
only  by  causing  the  impulses  leading  to  action  to  spring 
from  the  inside,  and  not  by  impressing  them  upon  the 
boy  from  the  outside.  The  will  cannot  be  cultivated  by 
compulsion,  but  the  only  effect  of  such  j^rocedure  is  to 
liring  abii'jt  a  real  weakening  of  the  \\ill. 

Proper  Cultreatioii  of  fJie  [['///. — More  than  this,  when 
we  compel  a  boy  to  attend  to  a  disagreeable  thing,  we 
are  not  cultivating  his  \\\\\.  but  we  are  teaching  him  to 
divide  his  attention  and  his  energies, — a  process  which  is 
productive  of  anything  else  than  the  effect  desired.  The 
boy  may  assume  the  appearance  of  studying  his  history 
lesson  while  at  the  same  time  he  may  be  counting  the 
marbles   in  his   pocket,   or   day-dreaming  of  sailing  the 


146  PRINCIPLES  OF   TEACHING 

Spanish  Main  in  a  pirate  ship.  The  onl)-  way  to  cuhivate 
the  win  of  the  chikl  is  to  cause  the  impulse  to  action  to 
spring  up  from  his  own  consciousness.  Hence  the  will 
can  be  cuhivated  only  by  the  method  of  procedure  ad- 
vocated by  the  Interest  people.  Only  those  exercises 
cuhivate  the  wih,  in  any  true  sense  of  the  word,  that 
command  the  interest  of  children. 

U\\ikiirss  of  the  Argument  of  the  irill  People. — 
The  reply  of  the  Interest  people  seems  to  Ije  satisfactory. 
The  real  weakness  of  tlic  argument  of  the  Will  people 
is  that  it  is  based  upon  a  psychology  that  is  decadent 
and  demonstrabl}-  wrong.  The  will  is  not  something 
that  can  be  trained  as  a  horse  or  dog  can  be.  Hence  their 
argument  is  fallacious,  and  wholly  beside  the  question. 

Weakness  of  the  Argument  of  the  Interest  People. — 
The  Interest  people  are  wrong  in  their  assumption  that 
the  interest  resides  in  the  thing.  It  is  not  the  thing  that 
is  interesting  but  it  is  we  wdio  are  interested.  Conse- 
quently much  of  the  reasoning  of  the  Interest  people 
is  as  bad  or  worse  than  that  of  the  Will  people.  Let  us 
study  interest  in  itself  before  trying  to  decide  upon  the 
relative  merits  of  the  arguments  advanced  by  the  two 
sides. 

JJ'Jiat  Interest  Is. — Interest  is  classed  by  some  persons 
as  an  intellectual  process,  and  is  scarcely  discriminated 
from  attention.  It  seems  much  more  satisfactory  to 
consider  interest  as  a  feeling,  and  to  class  it  with  other 
affective  processes.  A  feeling  can  never  exist  alone,  but 
it  is  ahvavs  the  accompaniment  of  an  intellectual  pro- 


INTEREST  147 

cess.  The  intellectual  process  which  the  feeling  that  we 
call  interest  accompanies  is  a  perception.  The  thing 
that  is  perceived  when  we  experience  the  feeling  of 
interest  is  a  relation.  One  of  the  terms  between  which 
the  relation  is  perceived  is  ourselves,  and  the  other  term 
is  the  thing  to  which  we  attend.  Hence  we  may  define 
interest  as  the  feeling  which  accompanies  the  perception 
of  the  relation  which  exists  between  the  thing  to  which 
we  attend  and  ourselves.  When  no  relation  is  perceived 
between  the  thing  and  ourselves,  the  feeling  which  we 
experience  is  not  that  of  interest. 

Ei'erythiir^  is  Interesting. — When  I  see  a  man  walk- 
ing along  the  street,  the  matter  may  be  of  no  interest 
to  me.  But  when  something  indicates  that  he  is  my 
father  or  my  brother  or  some  one  to  whom  I  owe  money, 
then  it  becomes  of  interest.  The  interest  has  arisen,  not 
from  any  change  in  the  appearance  of  the  man,  but 
from  the  recognition  of  the  relation  that  he  holds  to 
me.  Similarly,  everything  in  which  I  am  interested  is 
related  to  me  in  some  way.  In  a  certain  sense,  everything 
in  the  universe  is  related  to  me ;  so  there  is  nothing  in 
the  universe  in  which  I  am  not  now.  or  in  which  I  may 
not  become  interested.  In  order  thai  I  ma\  be  interested 
in  any  particular  thing  all  that  I  ncctl  to  do  is  to  |)erceive 
that  it  holds  some  relation  to  me.  The  interest  is  nnich 
or  little  according  to  the  closeness  of  the  relali()n>hip. 
Hence  it  would  seem  unwise  to  refuse  to  teach  a  partic- 
ular subject  because  it  is  of  nn  interest  lo  the  child.  The 
child  is  interested  in  ever\thinq-  in  the  universe,  or  he 


148  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

may  become  so.  Lack  of  interest  does  not  imply  a  par- 
ticular stage  of  development,  but  it  implies  lack  of  skill 
and  insight  in  the  teacher.  Interest  in  a  subject  does  not 
imply  that  the  subject  is  the  best  thing  for  the  child  to 
be  taught  at  any  particular  time.  Hence  we  may  be 
perfectl}-  free  in  our  selection  of  material  for  the  course 
of  stud}-,  selecting  those  things  which  it  will  be  best  for 
the  child  to  know,  and  feeling  perfectly  confident  that, 
if  it  is  presented  in  the  right  way  and  with  the  proper 
perspective,  anything  we  may  choose  to  present  will  be 
of  interest. 

Interest  a  Feeling. — Interest  is  a  feeling,  but  not  all 
feelings  are  interests.  If  a  feeling  accompanies  some 
other  intellectual  process  than  the  perception  of  the  re- 
lation between  ourselves  and  something  else,  then  the 
feeling  is  not  one  of  interest.  Like  other  feelings,  in- 
terests may  differ  in  their  specific  character,  and  be  of 
different  kinds ;  so  it  is  perfectly  proper  to  speak  of 
interests,  using  the  word  in  the  plural.  We  may  have  just 
as  many  different  kinds  of  interests  as  there  are  kinds  of 
relations  that  we  perceive. 

Three  Qualities  of  Feeling. — Feelings  differ  from 
each  other  in  at  least  three  important  respects.  They 
dift'er  in  specific  character.  One  feeling  needs  to  be  de- 
signated by  a  dift'erent  name  from  another  feeling,  as 
joy  and  sorrow.  Feelings  also  differ  from  each  other  in 
intensity  and  may  be  strong  or  weak.  Feelings  also  differ 
from  each  other  in  tone,  by  which  we  mean  the  pleas- 
antness  or   unpleasantness   which   they   manifest.     Tone 


INTEREST  149 

is  SO  important  that  many  persons  have  been  inclined  to 
consider  it  the  feeHng^  itself,  rather  than  one  of  the 
characteristic  qualities  of  feelin^r.  This  accounts  in  very 
large  measure  for  the  fact  that  by  interest  most  persons 
have  meant  the  pleasantness  accompanying  an  intellectual 
process.  But  we  may  have  unpleasant  interests  just  as 
truly  as  pleasant.  The  pleasant  tone  of  a  feeling  usually 
accompanies  a  degree  of  resistance  in  a  nervous  arc  that 
is  not  so  great  as  to  be  injurious,  while  an  unpleasant 
interest,  or  feeling,  is  usually  the  accompaniment  of  a 
degree  of  resistance  which  is  injurious  to  the  individual. 

Habit  Decreases  Feeling. — The  fact  is  well  estab- 
lished that  a  repetition  of  the  passage  of  a  nervous  im- 
pulse through  the  same  nervous  arc  leaves  such  an  effect 
in  the  arc  that  the  nervous  impulse  will  thereafter 
traverse  it  with  less  resistance  than  it  did  at  first.  This 
is  the  law  of  habit,  and  it  is  the  most  important  fact  in 
our  study  of  interest.  An  unpleasant  interest,  which  we 
may  regard  as  the  concomitant  of  great  resistance  in  the 
nervous  arc,  may,  by  practice  or  habit,  change  to  one  of 
a  pleasant  character.  When  the  resistance  becomes  little 
or  nothing,  then  the  interest  ceases  to  be  pleasant  or  un- 
pleasant, and  becomes  one  of  monotony. 

Unpleasant  Subject  Becomes  Pleasant  by  Successful 
Study. — Here  we  have  an  explanation  of  an  important 
fact.  A  subject  in  school  that  is  too  difficult  for  a  class, 
awakens  a  painful  interest  and  the  pupils  do  not  like  to 
study  it.  But  if  it  is  studied  long  enough,  and  the  chil- 
dren understand  each  lesson  as  it  is  studied,  the  practice 


150  PRIXCIPLF.S   OF   TEACIIIXG 

diminishes  the  resistance,  and  the  interest  ceases  to  be 
unpleasant  and  becomes  pleasant.  If  a  lesson  is  too  hard, 
the  interest  the  children  experience  in  studying  it  is  an 
unpleasant  interest.  If  the  lesson  is  too  easy,  it  does 
not  furnish  a  sufficient  amount  of  resistance  to  arouse  any 
kind  of  feeling,  and  the  interest  of  the  children  is  not  a 
pleasant  interest,  but  one  of  monotony. 

Interest  Usually  Follozvs  Attention. — In  the  above 
facts  we  have  an  answer  to  tlie  question  frequently 
asked :  Does  interest,  meaning  pleasurable  interest,  fol- 
low or  precede  the  doing  of  a  piece  of  work  well?  In  the 
case  of  a  pupil  in  school,  does  he  do  good  work  because 
he  is  interested  in  the  subject,  or  is  he  interested  in  the 
subject  because  he  does  his  work  well?  If  a  person  is 
interested  in  his  work,  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  work  will 
be  done  with  the  greatest  economy  of  efifort.  But  how 
shall  the  pleasurable  interest  be  aroused  ?  This  is  a  prac- 
tical matter,  and  it  will  always  be  found  that  if  a  pupil 
undertakes  to  learn  his  lesson  as  well  as  it  is  possible 
for  him  to  learn  it,  the  pleasurable  interest  in  the  subject 
will  increase  rapidly.  A  sure  recipe  for  arousing  interest 
in  school  work  is  to  see  that  every  lesson  is  well  learned 
and  thoroughly  understood. 

Illustration  in  This  Chapter. — This  very  chapter  will 
furnish  an  illustration.  A  person  who  is  not  concerned 
with  teaching  nor  with  philosophical  questions,  and  w'ho 
reads  this  chapter  over  casually,  as  he  would  a  newspaper 
paragraph,  will  not  experience  any  feeling  of  interest  in  it. 
A  teacher,  to  whom  this  chapter  may  be  supposed  to  have 


INTEREST  151 

something  of  intrinsic  interest,  and  who  reads  it  over  with 
little  attention,  will  experience  little  interest  in  it.  A 
teacher  who  puts  enough  energy  into  the  reading  of  this 
chapter  to  discover  in  it  an  explanation  of  the  phenomena 
of  interest  or  lack  of  interest  in  the  children  that  he  has 
observed  will  experience  a  pleasurable  interest  in  reading 
it.  A  teacher  who  has  not  had  the  proper  kind  of  psycho- 
logical training  to  enable  him  to  read  this  chapter  readily 
and  understandingly  without  much  study  and  great  effort, 
but  who  does  read  it  thoroughly,  will  experience  a  pain- 
ful interest  in  it.  A  teacher  of  much  experience,  or  a 
writer  upon  pedagogy,  whose  ideas  on  interest,  already 
well  established,  are  jarred  out  of  their  setting  by  the 
critical  reading  of  this  chapter,  is  likely  to  experience  a 
painful  interest  in  it,  and  to  verify  by  his  attitude  toward 
these  ideaSi  the  accuracy  of  the  conclusion  here  reached, 
//otc  Develop  Interest. — Our  very  definition  of  inter- 
est also  implies  what  is  necessary  to  the  production  of 
pleasurable  interest  in  school  work.  The  child  who  is 
unable  to  see  what  relation  the  subject  of  instruction 
bears  to  the  life  that  he  is  leading  or  that  he  must  ulti- 
mately lead  will  not  have  his  interest  so  readily  aroused. 
Hence  the  teacher  who  wishes  his  pupils  to  learn  as 
rapidly  and  with  as  little  effort  as  possible,  will  devote 
much  attention  to  showing  the  relation  that  the  subjects 
of  instruction  bear  to  the  life  of  the  children  in  school. 
There  are  so  many  different  kinds  of  relations  and  so 
many  interests  to  which  appeal  may  be  made  that  a 
teacher  who  is  skillful  and  acquainted  with  the  real  situa- 
tion will  have  little  difificultv, 


152  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Interest  of  Curiosity. — It  is  impossible  to  make  any 
very  satisfactory  classification  of  interests.  It  will  serve 
our  purpose  merely  to  discuss  a  few  of  the  most  im- 
portant and  easily  observable  interests  without  undertak- 
ing to  classify  tliem  all.  We  may  group  some  of  the 
interests  in  such  a  way  that  the  grouping  may  be  service- 
able to  us  without  its  being  a  scientific  classification. 

The  first  group  of  interests  we  may  indicate  are  those 
of  curiosity.  They  are  rather  low  interests  and  in  them 
is  implied  something  of  a  reprehensible  character. 
When  we  speak  of  a  person  as  being  very  curious  by 
nature,  or  manifesting  great  curiosity,  we  mean  to  imply 
something  rather  to  the  discredit  of  the  individual.  But 
low  as  is  this  interest,  it  is  the  first  interest  that  people 
experience,  and  perhaps  it  lies  at  the  basis  of  all  im- 
provement that  the  world  has  made.  The  nations  that 
lead  the  world  in  science  and  civilization  are  the  nations 
in  which  the  interest  of  curiosity  is  prominent.  Out  of 
it  growls  the  desire  to  know  for  the  sake  of  knowing. 
It  expresses  the  relation  of  the  unknown  to  ourselves. 
The  nations  of  Southern  Asia  are  good  examples  of 
nations  that  experience  little  interest  of  curiosity.  Such 
nations  become  stagnant  and  make  little  progress.  The 
letter  of  the  Turkish  cadi  to  Dr.  Lnyard  is  a  classic  ex- 
pression of  this  lack  of  curiosity.  To  people  w^ho  ex- 
perience this  lack  of  curiosity,  progress  is  impossible. 

Letter  of  a  Ttirkisb  Cndi  to  l\Tr.  I.ayard,  who  wrote  to  him 
nsVin.a:  for  certain  statistical  information: 
"My  Illustrious  Friend  and  Joy  of  My  Liver: 

'The    thing   vou    ask    nf   me    is    both    difficult    and    useless. 
Although  I  have  passed  all  my  days  in  this  place,  I  have  neither 


INTEREST  153 

counted  the  houses  nor  iiuiuired  into  the  number  of  inhabitants; 
and  as  for  what  one  person  loads  on  his  mules  and  the  other 
stows  away  in  the  bottom  of  his  ship,  that  is  no  business  of 
mine.  But.  above  all,  as  to  the  previous  history  of  this  city, 
God  only  knows  the  amount  of  dirt  and  confusion  that  the 
infidels  may  have  eaten  before  tiie  coming  of  the  sword  of 
Islam.     It  were  unprofitable  to  inquire  into  it. 

"O,  my  Soul !  O,  my  Lamb !  Seek  not  after  the  things 
that  concern  thee  not.  Thou  earnest  unto  us  and  we  welcomed 
thee :  go  in  peace. 

"Of  a  truth  thou  hast  spoken  many  words;  and  there  is  no 
harm  done,  for  the  speaker  is  one  and  the  listener  is  another. 
After  the  fashion  of  thy  people  thou  hast  wandered  from  one 
place  to  another  until  thou  art  happy  and  content  in  none.  We 
(praise  be  to  God)  were  born  here  and  never  desire  to  quit  it. 
I-^  it  possible,  then,  that  the  idea  of  a  general  intercourse  between 
mankind  should  make  any  impression  on  our  understanding? 
God  forbid. 

"Listen,  O  my  son.  There  is  no  wisdom  like  unto  the  belief 
in  God.  He  created  the  world,  and  shall  we  liken  ourselves 
unto  Him  in  seeking  to  penetrate  into  the  mysteries  of  His 
creation?  Shall  we  say,  Behold  this  star  spinneth  around  that 
star,  and  this  other  star  with  a  tail  cometh  and  goeth  in  so  many 
years?  Let  it  go.  He  from  whose  hand  it  came  will  guide  and 
direct  it. 

"But  thou  wilt  say.  Stand  aside,  O  man,  for  I  am  more 
learned  than  thou  art,  and  have  seen  more  things.  If  thou 
thinkest  that  thou  art  in  this  respect  better  than  I  am,  thou  art 
welcome.  I  praise  God  that  I  seek  not  that  which  I  require  not. 
Thou  art  learned  in  the  things  that  I  care  not  for;  and  as  for 
what  thou  hast  seen,  I  spit  upon  it.  Will  much  knowledge 
create  thee  a  double  stomach,  or  wilt  thou  seek  Paradise  with 
thine  eyes? 

"O  my  friend,  if  thou  wilt  be  happy  say,  There  is  no  God 
but  God.  Do  no  evil,  and  thus  wilt  thou  fear  neither  man  nor 
death,  for  surely  thine  hour  will  come. 

"Tlie   Meek  in   Spirit    (HI    l-akir), 

"I.M.vuM  Ali  Zadi." 

Curiosity  as  an  Interest  in  School. — Many  teachers 
appeal  to  the  interest  of  curiosity  as  a  means  of  stimti- 
lating  sttidy.  A  subject  is  regarded  as  interesting  be- 
cause it  is  new  and  strange.  The  practice  of  such  teach- 
ears  is  to  do  something  new  all  the  time  in  order  to  keep 
tlie  children  intere.'^ted.    It  reallv  seems  as  if  it  is  scarcely 


154  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

advisable  to  appeal  to  this  interest  as  a  means  of  inducing 
study,  for  it  is  a  lower  form  of  interest  than  is  the  interest 
of  habit,  or  almost  any  other.  When  a  class  enters  upon 
a  new  subject,  it  will  be  discovered  that  no  good  work 
is  likely  to  be  done  until  the  feeling  of  newness  has 
disappeared  and  a  different  interest  manifests  itself.  The 
effect  of  appealing  to  the  interest  of  curiosity  and  of 
doing  something  new  all  the  time  is  fatal  to  the  forma- 
tion of  correct  habits  of  study,  and  even  if  it  fails  to  in- 
duce nervousness  in  children,  it  prevents  the  develop- 
ment of  more  powerful  interests. 

Interest  of  Exploration. — Similar  to  the  interest  of 
curiosity,  and  yet  to  be  distinguished  from  it,  is  the  in- 
terest of  exploration.  This  interest  is  experienced  when 
persons  travel  beyond  the  boundaries  of  their  horizon,  and 
when  they  see  new  things  for  themselves.  It  is  not  lim- 
ited to  physical  exploraiion,  but  applies  to  the  fields  of 
knowledge  in  all  directions.  It  is  the  interest  underlying 
what,  at  present,  we  call  research. 

But  not  all  things  are  indicative  of  the  interest  of 
exploration  that  appear  to  be.  When  a  person  reads 
up  all  the  guide  books  that  he  can  find  about  the  places 
which  he  expects  to  visit,  the  probability  is  strong  that 
the  real  interest  is  not  one  of  exploration,  but  one  of 
imitation.  The  person  wishes  to  imitate  what  other 
people  have  done,  and  if  other  persons  had  not  visited 
such  places  and  talked  about  them  he  would  not  feel 
inclined  to  do  so.  It  is  not  the  interest  of  exploration 
that  takes  people  to  Europe  in  such  large  numbers  every 


IXTKkKST  155 

suinnier,  but  rather  the  interest  of  imitation.  If  it  were 
tlie  interest  of  exi^Ioration.  they  would  prefer  to  visit 
South  Ameriea,  or  some  other  plaee  that  is  not  so  com- 
monl}-  frequented  ])y  tourists. 

Interest  of  Habit. — The  interest  of  habit  is  a  powerful 
interest.  Habit  is  a  conservator  of  energy,  and  anything 
that  is  done  as  the  result  of  habit  is  done  with. little  loss 
of  energy.  When  a  thing  has  become  habitual  we  ex- 
perience little  feeling  in  doing  it.  The  resistance  in  the 
brain  centers  involved  in  the  nervous  processes  has 
diminished  to  a  minimum,  and  little  feeling  results.  The 
tone  has  become  one  of  indifference.  But  when  we  un- 
dertake to  do  the  thing  in  a  different  way,  we  increase 
the  resistance  to  such  an  extent  that  the  resulting  feeling 
has  a  painful  tone.  Often  it  seems  more  painful  to  break 
a  habit  tlian  it  does  to  form  one.  The  direction  of  the 
nervous  impulse  into  unaccustomed  channels  is  accom- 
panied by  so  great  an  amount  of  resistance  that  the  con- 
comitant feeling  is  painful.  In  the  case  of  an  activity 
that  is  at  first  painful,  repetition  diminishes  the  amount 
of  resistance  to  such  an  extent  that  it  ceases  to  be  ac- 
companied by  a  painful  feeling,  and  comes  to  be  attended 
by  a  pleasurable  one. 

Importance  of  Habit. — Habit  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant interests.  If  a  teacher  can  get  a  class  into  the 
habit  of  learning  lessons  well,  or  into  the  habit  of  proper 
behavior  in  school,  or  into  the  habit  of  punctuality,  or 
regular  attendance,  the  school  work  runs  smoothly,  and 
there  is  little  friction  anywhere  in  the  school.    All  things 


150  PRl.NCIPLES   OF    TEACHl-NG 

that  contribute  to  the  formation  of  correct  habits  of 
study  and  behavior  are  important  arrangements  in  the 
making  of  the  school.  Strict  adherence  to  the  program, 
promptness  in  opening  and  closing  the  school  and  in  the 
diflerent  exercises  of  the  day;  the  manner  of  assigning 
lessons  and  of  calling  upon  the  pupils  to  recite ;  everything 
that  conduces  to  the  steady  movement  of  the  school  will 
induce  interest  of  habit  and  tend  to  render  it  helpful 
to  the  pupils.  On  the  other  hand,  whatever  tends  to 
interrupt  the  formation  of  good  habits  in  school  detracts 
just  so  much  from  its  efficiency.  Even  holidays,  changes 
of  program,  new  devices,  all  tend  to  retard  and  to  pre- 
vent the  formation  of  habit.  Just  in  so  far  as  they 
substitute  an  interest  of  less  effectiveness  for  the  interest 
of  habit,  they  tend  to  detract  from  the  effectiveness  of  the 
school  work. 

Interest  of  Artistic  Accomplishment. — The  interest  of 
artistic  accomplishment  is  well  worthy  of  our  considera- 
tion. Sometimes  we  know  that  things  become  monoton- 
ous, and  children  lose  interest  in  their  work.  This  is 
the  justification  assigned  by  many  teachers  for  the  change 
of  program,  the  introduction  of  new  exercises,  and  the 
employment  of  the  interest  of  curiosity.  Monotony  is  a 
manifestation  of  indifference.  It  is  not  painful,  neither 
is  it  pleasurable.  We  think  of  it  as  something  undesira- 
ble because  it  affords  no  pleasure. 

With  the  same  amount  of  nervous  energy,  tlie  action 
that  is  performed  without  feeling  will  be  better  done  than 
if  feeling  accompanies  it.    Usually,  however,  the  feeling 


INTEREST  157 

of  monotony  accompanies  an  action  that  is  performed 
with  little  energ}-.  If  a  greater  amount  of  nervous 
energy  were  generated  in  tlie  doing  of  the  act,  feeling, 
not  of  monoton\ ,  or  indifference,  but  of  pleasure  would 
accompany  the  action.  Hence  arises  the  belief  that  a 
feeling  of  pleasure  is  the  best  evidence  of  an  action  well 
done. 

Artistic  Accomplishment  Not  Monotonous. — The 
work  of  an  artist  never  becomes  monotonous.  Whenever 
we  do  anything  in  the  ver_\-  best  way  possible  for  us  to 
do  it  we  alwa}  s  experience  a  feeling  of  pleasure.  This  is 
true  after  the  painful  experience  of  learning  has  been 
completed,  and  a  habit  has  been  formed.  If  we  do  the 
thing  as  well  as  we  can  do  it,  habit  never  becomes  so 
strong  that  it  takes  away  the  pleasure  in  the  doing.  In- 
difference or  monotony  results  only  when  the  amount  of 
nervous  energy  does  not  increase  as  the  habit  is  formed. 
When  we  do  a  thing  in  the  very  best  way  that  we  can 
do  it,  there  is  always  a  sufficient  amount  of  resistance  to 
create  in  us  the  feeling  of  interest,  whether  pleasant  or 
unpleasant.  This  unpleasant  interest  may,  and  in  gen- 
eral will,  become  diminished  by  habit,  so  that  the  final 
result  will  always  be  a  pleasant  interest.  The  pleasant 
interest  may  give  way  to  a  feeling  of  indifference,  if  no 
larger  amount  of  energy  is  employed.  But  in  order  to  do 
the  work  in  the  very  best  possible  way  we  shall  need  to 
direct  the  nervous  impulse  in  such  an  amount  through 
the  necessary  brain  centers  that  considerable  resistance 
will  be  encountered. 


158  TRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

Limit  of  Skill. — Not  only  will  a  larger  amount  of 
nervous  energy  result  in  an  increase  in  interest,  but  we 
cannot  go  on  improving  in  the  doing  of  the  thing  by 
practice  indefinitely.  There  is  a  limit  to  the  skill  which 
we  may  acquire.  We  ultimately  reach  a  point  where 
we  forget  as  rapidly  as  we  learn.  The  cells  at  the  limit 
of  the  brain  center  which  is  traversed,  recover  from  the 
effect  of  the  transmission  of  the  nervous  impulse  through 
them  as  rapidly  as  they  are  modified.  Even  the  most 
skillful  artist  needs  to  keep  in  practice,  and  a  few  days 
cessation  increases  the  resistance  in  the  necessary  brain 
centers  to  such  an  extent  that  the  nervous  impulse  finds 
a  more  difficult  pathway  than  before.  Hence  the  result  is 
not  so  successful  as  on  the  previous  occasion. 

Here  we  have  an  explanation  of  the  continuous  pleas- 
urable interest  in  doing  any  thing  as  well  as  we  can  do  it. 
We  may  call  this  the  interest  of  artistic  accomplishment, 
and  it  may  be  experienced  in  any  activity  in  which  w'e 
may  engage.  It  may,  perhaps,  be  experienced  in  the 
highest  degree  in  those  occupations  that  demand  the 
highest  skill,  but  it  may  be  experienced  in  other  occupa- 
tions as  well.  Even  though  the  problem  be  so  simple 
as  chopping  v,ood,  the  one  who  starts  out  to  be  an  artist 
can  never  find  such  occupation  mechanicht.  "^hc  skill  re- 
quired to  strike  exactly  in  the  same  place  tnat  the  ax 
fell  upon  before  is  not  easily  acquired  nor  easily  retained. 
There  is  always  a  sufficient  amount  of  resistance  in  the 
fringe  of  cells  latest  to  be  traversed  with  case  in  the 
acquisition    of    skill,    to    furnish    a    pleasurable    interest. 


INTEREST  159 

There  is  generally,  in  such  cases,  a  pretty  steady  balance 
between  the  forgetting  and  the  learning;  between  the 
decrease  of  resistance  and  the  recovery  of  the  former 
condition,  so  that  the  process  never  becomes  monotonous, 
nor  the  feeling  one  of  indiilerence. 

Interest  in  Welfare. — Interest  in  our  own  welfare, 
both  physical  and  social,  is  an  interest  so  comprehensive 
that  it  may  be  made  to  include  all  egoistic  feelings  and 
a  large  part  of  the  altruistic.  It  is  presupposed  in  all  dis- 
cussions of  interest,  and  may  be  made  to  include  more 
than  half  of  all  kinds  of  interests  that  we  can  distinguish. 
It  may  be  a  pleasurable  or  a  painful  interest,  and  it  is 
scarcely  worth  our  while  to  consider  it  in  any  way  except 
as  a  generic  interest  that  includes  many  groups  which  we 
may  characterize  by  other  names. 

Synopsis. 

1.  The  Interest  people  assert  that  all  school  work 
should  be  determined  by  the  interest  which  children  mani- 
fest in  it.  The  Will  people  consider  interest  a  minor 
matter,  and  seek  justification  for  their  selection  of  suIj- 
jects  and  methods  of  teaching  in  the  opportunity  aft'orded 
for  the  cultivation  of  the  will.  The  two  schools  of  phil- 
osophers are  quite  distinctly  opposed  to  each  other. 

2.  Interest  is  a  feeling,  and  like  other  feelings  is  to 
be  explained  upon  physiological  principles,  and  associated 
with  nervous  processes.  It  may  be  associated  with  the 
resistance  which  a  nervous  impulse  encounters  in  passing 
through  a  nervous  arc. 


160  FKlXCil'LES   (JF    TEACH  IN(; 

3.  Interest  is  the  feeling  which  accompanies  the  in- 
tellectual process  of  the  perception  of  the  relation  be- 
tween the  thing  tc  which  we  attend  and  ourselves. 

4.  jMany  kinds  of  relations  indicate  many  kinds  of 
interests.  We  mav  become  interested  in  anvthinsf  and 
everything  in  the  universe,  since  everything  in  the  uni- 
verse holds  some  relation  to  ourselves. 

5.  Some  of  the  principal  kinds  of  interest  are  curios- 
ity, or  wonder,  exploration,  habit,  imitation,  and  artistic 
accomplishment. 


CHAPTER  X. 

Imitatiox. 

Importance  of  Iinitatloii. — The  interest  of  imitation 
is  of  so  much  iniporUmce  that  it  demands  treatment  by 
itself.  There  is  somethini[y  rather  uncomplimentar}-  im- 
pUed  in  the  statement  that  a  person  is  an  imitator,  or  that 
a  certain  piece  of  work  is  an  imitation.  Notwithstanding 
the  uncomplimentary  character  of  such  references,  imita- 
tion is  one  of  the  most  important  elements  in  the  education 
of  children,  and  in  our  whole  social  life.  Other  things 
being  as  they  are,  if  it  were  not  for  the  results  of  imita- 
tion, it  would  be  impossible  to  maintain  our  present  civili- 
zation for  a  single  day. 

Effect  of  Z?c/nq-  Orig^inal  in  Language. — Let  us  sup- 
pose that  we  should  decide  to  be  absolutely  original,  and 
suppose  that  we  were  able  to  do  so.  Let  us  suppose  that 
we  decide  to  invent  a  language  of  our  own,  and  not  to 
imitate  the  language  of  others.  Suppose  we  were  able  to 
invent  a  language  as  complex  as  the  English,  with  as 
many  words  and  modes  of  expression  and  new  rules  of 
grammar.  When  we  had  our  new  language  invented,  of 
what  use  would  't  be?  Since  no  one  else  would  know 
our  language,  it  would  l^e  impossible  to  communicate  our 
thought  by  means  of  it  to  any  other  person,  and  the  very 
purpose  for  which  language  is  made  would  be  defeated. 

161 


162  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

We  should  be,  as  a  result  of  our  refusal  to  imitate,  in 
exactly  the  same  condition  that  the  prehuman  race  was 
before  it  had  become  able  to  use  spoken  language. 

Illustration  from  Clothing. — Similarly,  if  we  were  to 
refuse  to  wear  the  same  kind  of  clothes  that  other  persons 
do,  we  should  deprive  ourselves  of  the  advantage  of  get- 
ting our  clothes  at  the  same  shop  where  other  clothes 
may  be  procured.  We  should  find  no  tailor  who  could 
make  clothes  for  us,  since  he  knows  how  to  make  only 
such  clothes  as  other  persons  wear.  We  should  be  com- 
pelled to  invent  new  ways  of  making  up  clothes.  If  we 
should  refuse  to  imitate  others  in  the  kinds  of  materials 
employed,  we  should  be  compelled  to  discover  new 
materials,  and  to  invent  new  processes  for  making  them 
into  fabric.  In  short,  we  should  deprive  ourselves  of 
the  wisdom  which  people  have  been  accumulating  for 
thousands  of  years.  The  same  kind  of  illustration  might 
be  employed  with  reference  to  food,  to  houses,  to  amuse- 
ments, or  to  anything  else.  We  are  able  to  enjoy  so 
much  of  the  comforts  of  life  in  such  abundance  merely 
because  we  are  imitators  and  content  to  eat  the  same 
things,  to  wear  the  same  kind  of  things,  and  to  enjoy  the 
same  things  that  other  persons  do. 

Imitation  Preserves  Improvements. — Imitation  is  the 
conservative  force  in  community  life,  and  tends  to  pre- 
serve the  improvements  that  have  once  been  made.  But 
in  order  that  there  shall  be  improvements  and  progress, 
there  must  be  change,  which  is  opposed  to  imitation.  This 
tendency  to  change  we  may  call  adaptation,  or  invention, 


IMITATION  163 

or  creation,  ^'ations  differ  w  idcly  in  their  disposition  to 
invent,  or  to  change.  A  nation  that  is  new,  and  is  not 
hampered  by  traditions,  or  old  ways  of  doing  things,  is 
likely  to  be  very  inventive.  This  ih  the  condition  of  the 
United  States  toda\ .  Uur  people  generally  are  inventive,  , 
not  merely  in  machinery  and  mechanical  devices,  but  in 
political,  religious,  and  social  life.  The  same  thing  is 
true  of  the  people  of  New  Zealand  and  Australia,  who  are, 
like  the  United  States,  adolescent  nations.  The  sanie 
thing  is  not  true  of  the  people  of  Europe,  and  still  less 
of  the  people  of  Eastern  Asia. 

The  Chinese  were  once  a  highly  inventive  people. 
Two  or  three  thousand  years  ago  they  invented  gun- 
powder and  tlie  magnetic  needle  and  printing,  and 
brought  into  cultivation  almost  one-half  of  all  the  plants 
that  constitute  the  agricultural  production  of  the  world. 
They  seem  to  have  lost  their  power  of  invention,  and  to 
have  been  for  a  great  many  years  chiefly  concerned  in 
the  preservation  of  what  they  have  already  acquired. 
They  are  imitative  to  excess.  We  have  all  heard  the 
story  of  the  officer  of  a  European  vessel  in  a  Chinese 
port,  who  employed  a  Chinese  tailor  to  make  a  uniform 
for  him.  The  tailor  did  not  know  how  to  make  the 
European  trousers,  so  the  officer  furnished  him  with  an 
old  pair  as  a  model.  He  made  the  new  trousers  exactly 
as  the  old  ones  were  made :  and  since  the  old  ones  had 
been  patched  and  darned,  the  Chinese  tailor  made  the 
tear  in  the  knee  and  put  in  the  patch  and  the  darn. 
So  a  lady  who  had  a  Giinese  cook  showed  him  how  to 


164  PRINCIPLES   OF    TliACHlNG 

make  a  cake.  The  recipe  called  for  three  eggs,  but  one 
of  the  eggs  the  lady  had  at  hand  was  bad.  She  threw 
it  away  and  used  three  good  eggs.  Ever}-  time  that  the 
cook  made  a  cake  after  that  recipe,  he  employed  foar 
eggs,  three  to  put  into  the  cake  and  one  to  throw  away. 

hiiitation  in  Children. — Children  are  imitative.  Imi- 
tation does  not  appear  at  first,  but  manifests  itself  about 
the  age  of  six  to  nine  months.  From  that  time  until  the 
child  is  seven  years  of  age,  imitation  is  nearly  the 
strongest  interest  the  child  possesses. 

The  first  actions  of  a  child  are  not  imitative  acts. 
They  are  refiexes  and  involuntary.  He  responds  by  a 
muscular  movement  to  a  stimulus  ;  but  the  act  is  not  an 
intellectual  one,  and  cannot  be  inhibited. 

Imitation  and  Reflex  Action. — There  is  very  little 
difference  between  the  first  imitative  actions  of  a  child 
and  the  preceding  retlexes  which  involve  the  same 
muscles.  The  principal  difference  is  that  after  a  series 
of  reflexes,  the  cb.ild  comes  to  recognize  that  it  is  his 
muscle  which  moves  in  response  to  the  stimulus,  and  he 
can  picture  in  his  mind  the  movement  of  the  arm  or  the 
muscle  before  it  is  made.  This  preliminary  itlea  of  his 
own  movement,  however,  is  the  essential  difference  be- 
tween the  voluntary  and  the  involuntar}-  act ;  l)etween 
the  reflex  and  the  imitation.  Tlie  act  that  is  pictured  can 
be  inhibited,  if  the  contrary  picture,  or  the  opposing  sug- 
gestion is  presented.  Tf  it  is  not  presented,  the  action 
follows  as  inevitably  as  if  it  were  a  reflex  instead  nf 
voluntarv  act. 


1  Ml  lAl  1(J.\  165 

Rcihw  I'tisscs  'riiroiigli  Imitation  to  Become  a  Vol- 
iiutar\  .'let. — Tlii^.  llieii.  is  tlic  \\ay  tlial  a  rellex  act 
passes  over  into  a  conscKius,  \(ilunlai"_\-,  willed  act.  When 
a  child  sees  the  action  of  a  person,  such  as  the  waving 
of  a  parent's  hand,  the  child  has  a  mental  picture  of 
his  own  hand  waving.  It  is  in  this  way  that  he  inter- 
prets and  knows  the  meaning  of  the  action  of  the  other 
person.  Until  he  is  ahle  to  picture  to  himself  his  own 
hand  waving,  he  does  not  know  the  meaning  of  the  other 
person's  action.  The  idea  of  his  own  hand  waving 
furnishes  the  motive  for  the  action.  It  is  the  mental 
antecedent,  the  conscious  motive,  to  the  voluntary  act. 
The  idea  of  his  own  movement  comes  from  his  inter- 
pretation of  the  action  which  he  sees,  and  so  it  is  that 
the  child  imitates  the  action  of  the  person.  What  is 
imitated  is  the  idea  or  mental  image  of  the  action  of  the 
other  person,  which  exists  in  the  mind  of  the  child. 

Tlic  Physiological  Process  in  Imitation. — It  may  con- 
duce to  clearness  of  understanding  if  we  try  to  picture 
the  nervous  processes  that  go  on  in  the  brain  of  the 
child  at  the  time  of  the  imitative  act.  The  preceding 
reflexes  have  been  the  result  of  nervous  impulses  pass- 
ing through  the  motor  center.  A  connection  has  already 
been  established  between  the  sight  center  and  the  motor 
centers  as  a  result  of  the  stimulus  setting  up  a  nervous 
impulse  in  the  eye.  which  has  been  transmitted  to  the 
sight  center  anfl  then  has  flowed  over  to  the  motor  cen- 
ters. The  resulting  movement,  which  the  child  has 
seen,  has  established  another  impulse  in  the  sight  center, 


166  PlUACIl'LES   OF   TEACilliNG 

SO  that  the  sight  centers  and  the  motor  centers  have  be- 
come rather  closely  connected.  When  the  child  has 
pictured  to  himself  his  own  movement,  he  has  established 
a  nervous  impulse  which  is  centrally  initiated,  and  which 
has  been  preceded  by  such  an  adjustment  of  the  elements 
of  the  brain  centers  as  will  permit  a  nervous  impulse 
to  pass  easily.  Then  a  very  small  impulse  from  the  out- 
side directed  into  the  same  brain  center  will  easily  pass 
through  it  and  flow  over  into  the  associated  motor  center. 
It  is  not  so  likely  to  flow  into  the  other  motor  centers, 
because  like  adjustments  have  not  been  made  for  them. 
This  is  the  meaning  of  the  idea  of  one's  own  movement. 
Hence  the  previous  useless  reflexes  are  inhibited,  or  fail 
to  appear,  and  the  imitated  act  is  accomplished  with  less 
expenditure  of  nervous  energy  than  the  preceding  re- 
flexes. 

Every  Voluntary  Act  an  Imitation. — Using  the  word 
imitation  in  its  widest  sense,  we  may  say  that  every 
conscious  voluntary  action  is  an  imitation  of  the  idea 
which  exists  in  the  person's  mind.  It  does  not  seem, 
however,  that  this  method  of  looking  at  an  action  leads 
to  clearer  thinking  about  actions  in  general,  although 
it  does  emphasize  the  importance  of  imitation  as  an  ele- 
ment in  education. 

Hozv  Imitation  Passes  into  Originality. — The  iirst 
actions  of  children,  even  those  that  are  imitative,  are 
meaningless.  The  parent  who  starts  away  from  home 
and  waves  good-bye  to  the  baby,  fondly  imagines  that 
the   return    imitative   wave   of   the  baby's   hand   means 


IMITATION  167 

good-bye,  but  it  does  not.  It  is  purely  an  imitation  of 
the  action.  But  there  comes  a  time  when  the  child 
associates  the  action  of  the  hand  with  the  departure  and 
absence  of  the  parent.  Then  the  response  ceases  to  be 
purely  imitative,  and  becomes  something  more ;  or  rather, 
there  is  something  more  imitated  than  the  action  of  the 
parent.  Later,  when  the  parent  goes  away,  he  may  not 
wave  his  hand,  but  he  may  say,  "Bye,  bye,  Baby;"  and 
still  the  baby  may  respond  by  the  waving  of  his  hand 
as  he  has  previously  learned  to  do  on  similar  occasions. 
Here  is  an  imitation,  it  is  true,  but  it  is  the  imitation  of 
the  idea  rather  than  of  the  action.  The  same  idea  is  ex- 
pressed by  the  parent  in  words  which  the  baby  expresses, 
or  imitates,  by  the  action  of  the  hand. 

Accidental  Variation. — We  have  now  seen  how  the 
action  of  the  little  child  is  developed  from  a  reflex 
through  the  imitation  of  the  action  to  the  imitation  of  the 
idea,  and  becomes  a  conscious  voluntary  act.  It  is  now 
our  purpose  to  inquire  how  imitation  passes  over  into 
originality.  We  may  point  out  at  least  two  ways  in 
which  this  result  is  brought  about.  In  the  first  place, 
it  is  impossible  to  do  a  thing  twice  in  exactly  the  same 
way.  The  things  that  constitute  the  disturbing  elements 
are  so  many  and  so  various  and  so  difficult  to  trace,  that 
we  may  abandon  the  attempt  to  do  so,  and  say  that  the 
variations  arc  fortuitous,  or  accidental.  Accidental 
variation  then,  will  account  for  some  of  the  chansres  in  an 
imitated  action  that  enables  us  to  call  it  an  original 
process. 


168  I'RlNCirLES   Ul"   TEACHING 

Purposeful  I'anatiun. — Variation  of  an}  kind  is  or- 
iginality, no  matter  how  it  may  be  brought  about.  Be- 
sides this  accidental  variation,  there  may  be  a  purpose- 
ful variation.  After  an  action  has  been  performed  a 
good  many  times,  the  nervous  arc  ceases  to  furnish  a 
sufficient  amount  of  resistance  to  give  pleasure,  or  to 
furnish  a  pleasurable  interest  in  the  doing  of  the  act. 
Hence,  in  order  to  experience  interest,  or  pleasure  in  the 
doing,  the  person  will  modify,  somewhat,  the  nervous  arc, 
thus  throwing  new  brain  cells  into  the  combination,  in- 
creasing the  resistance,  and  consequently  modifying  the 
character  of  the  action.  In  this  way  we  may  account  in 
very  large  measure  for  the  tendency  to  invention,  grow- 
ing out  of  imitation. 

Imitation  in  Adults. — We  have  so  far  been  consider- 
ing the  child  as  imitative,  without  considering  the  effect 
of  the  same  quality  upon  the  actions  of  adults.  Grown 
people  are  quite  as  truly  imitative  as  are  children.  The 
difference  between  adults  and  children  in  this  respect 
is  that  adult  persons  have  a  large  number  of  ideas,  so 
that  an  inhibitory  one  is  much  more  likely  to  appear 
and  prevent  the  imitation  than  in  a  child.  Hence  we 
fail  to  recognize  the  imitative  character  of  adult  actions. 
But  when  it  is  possible  to  prevent  the  appearance  of 
the  inhibiting  idea,  persons  manifest  their  imitativeness 
very  clearly.  When  one  person  in  a  company  yawns, 
it  will  be  a  very  short  time  before  nearly  everybody  in 
the  company  will  yawn,  imless  the  inhibiting  suggestion 
i*;  given.     When  a  person  stares  up  into  the  sky,  as  if 


IMITATION  169 

lie  were  looking  for  an  airship  or  an  angel,  it  is  likely 
that  everybody  passing  near  him  will  glance  up  into  the 
sky,  or  even  stop  to  gaze  in  the  same  direction.  It  may 
be  that  he  saw  nothing  at  all,  but  in  the  absence  of  the 
inhibiting  suggestion,  people  will  imitate  his  actions. 

Importance  of  Imitation  in  School. — We  have  been 
studying  the  psychology  of  imitation,  but  it  is  necessary 
for  us  to  consider  the  practical  importance  of  this  in- 
terest to  the  teacher.  The  child  who  starts  into  school 
at  the  age  of  six  learns  nearly  everything  in  his  first 
year  by  imitation.  The  teacher  undertakes  to  teach  him 
how  to  write  a  word.  She  says,  "Write  it  in  this  way" — 
putting  a  copy  on  the  board.  Indeed  in  no  other  way 
could  the  child  be  taught  to  write.  If  the  teacher  were 
unable  to  write,  it  would  be  a  dit^cult  matter  for  her  to 
teach  the  children,  even  though  she  might  have  a  good 
mtellectual  knowledge  of  the  process  itself.  The  same 
thing  is  true  in  reading.  The  child  imitates  the  sound 
of  the  word  as  the  teacher  pronounces  it.  and  associates 
the  soimd  of  the  word  with  the  printed  character.  Read- 
ing, writing,  drawing,  and  the  exercises  that  are  intended 
to  develop  the  number  concept  are  all  imitative  exercises. 

Other  TJiiiv^s  Learned  by  Imitation. —  But  the  child 
learns  other  things  than  his  lessons  by  imitation.  He 
imitates  the  speech  of  the  teacher,  the  grammatical  forms, 
the  tricks  of  pronunciation,  the  ])eculiarities  of  manner, 
the  manner  of  rising  up  and  sitting  down.  Everything 
that  the  teacher  does  is  imitated  by  the  children.  We  see 
how  important  it  is.  then,  that  the  teacher  shall  be  ex- 


170  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

actly  the  proper  person  to  be  imitated  by  these  copyists. 
It  has  sometimes  been  suggested  that  we  over-emphasize 
the  importance  of  the  primary  teacher,  but  when  we 
consider  the  effect  of  imitation,  it  seems  ahiiost  impossi- 
ble to  do  so. 

Imitation  of  the  Bad. — The  child  imitates  not  merely 
the  teacher,  but  he  imitates  his  classmates  and  his  play- 
mates. He  imitates  their  habits  of  speech,  their  methods 
of  acting  and  their  ideas.  It  has  been  remarked  that 
the  child  is  likely  to  imitate  the  bad  rather  than  the 
good,  and  there  seems  to  be  a  good  deal  of  justification 
for  that  opinion.  There  is  also  a  clearly  indicated  reason 
why  such  should  be  the  case,  although  it  is  by  no  means 
an  evidence  of  total  depravity  on  the  part  of  the  child. 

Tlic  Good  Beyond  the  Child's  Stage  of  Development. 
— The  good  is  something  that  is  in  the  nature  of  an 
improvement  and  is  more  nearly  in  conformity  to  the 
standard  of  conduct  adopted  by  adult  society  than  is  the 
bad.  It  represents  a  standard  of  social  development 
that  has  been  attained  by  society  through  hundreds  of 
years  of  slow  progression.  The  bad  represents  a  stage 
of  conduct  existing  in  the  less  developed  society  of  the 
past.  The  child  is  in  a  stage  of  development  that  cor- 
responds to  the  past  experience  of  the  race,  rather  than 
to  the  present  higher  development  of  it.  The  bad.  then, 
is  more  nearly  in  accordance  with  his  present  stage  of 
development  than  is  the  good,  and  it  is  easier  for  him 
to  act  in  accordance  with  the  bad  standard  than  with 
the  good.     The  good  is  something  in  the  nature  of  an 


IMITATION  171 

improvement  and  a  development  of  character.  The  bad 
is  something  in  the  nature  of  a  lack  of  development. 
The  chilli,  in  -choul  at  least,  is  progressing  and  is  moving 
away  from  a  less  developed  to  a  more  developed  state. 
The  good  is  something  that  he  has  not  yet  grown  tip  to. 
Hence  he  is  more  nearly  affiliated  in  his  development  with 
the  undeveloped  condition  which  we  call  bad.  than  he  is 
with  the  more  fully  developed  condition  that  we  call 
good. 

hnitativc  Plays. — If  we  observe  the  plays  of  children, 
we  shall  see  that  before  the  age  of  seven  years,  with 
the  exception  of  sense  plays,  much  the  larger  number 
are  imitative  plays.  Children  play  house,  and  play  store, 
and  play  school.  We  observe  the  bizarre  and  strange 
imitations,  sometimes,  such  as  the  imitations  of  circus 
and  funerals  and  executions  and  butcherings ;  but  imita- 
tions of  the  less  rare  and  the  common  occupations  of 
adult  life  are  played  by  the  children  so  frequently  that 
they  fail  to  attract  attention,  and  we  neglect  their  consid- 
eration. They  constitute  much  the  larger  number  of 
children's  plays.  Sometimes  it  seems  necessary  for  chil- 
dren to  imitate  these  occupations  before  they  can  organ- 
ize them  in  their  minds. 

Dramatization  in  ScJwol. — This  leads  to  a  considera- 
tion of  the  exercise  in  school  that  is  known  as  dramatiza- 
tion. Dramatization  means  expression  in  action  of  the 
stories  that  have  been  read  by  the  children  or  told  to 
them.  Such  stories  as  Cock  Robin.  Little  Miss  IVIuffet, 
Bo    Peep,    Little    Boy    Blue,    The    Falling    Leaves,   are 


172  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

favorite  stories  for  draniatization.  The  reasons  advanced 
for  dramatization  are  of  tliree  kinds:  First,  that  it  is 
a  play  for  children  and  intcrc.^t>  them  very  much.  We 
may  allow  this  to  be  the  ca.se.  Children  do  dramatize, 
or  "play  and  act  out"  the  stories  that  they  have  read, 
on  their  own  initiative  and  without  an}'  teaching-.  How- 
ever, dramatization  is  advocated  for  its  educative  value 
rather  than  for  the  pleasure  that  it  gives  to  the  childern ; 
hence  it  is  from  the  educative  standpoint  that  we  must 
consider  it. 

Dramatizotion  a  Means  of  Expression. — The  second 
reason  is  that  children  find  in  dramatization  a  means  of 
expression.  They  express  the  thought  of  the  stories  in 
action.  This  is  undotibtedly  true,  although  it  may  be  true 
without  furnishing"  sufficient  reason  for  introducing 
dramatization  into  the  school  exercises  as  an  educative 
process.  This  argument  for  draniatization  might  take 
the  following  form :  Thought  is  impossible  without  ex- 
pression, and  the  more  complete  the  cxjircssion  the  better 
will  the  thought  be  organized.  The  child  needs  to  ex- 
press the  same  thought  in  as  man\  ways  as  possible.  He 
may  express  it  in  words,  both  spoken  and  written.  He 
may  express  it  in  material  by  making  the  object  that 
will  correspond  to  the  thought,  if  it  is  the  thought  of  a 
material  object.  He  may  express  it  in  drawing,  as  some 
things  are  best  adapted  to  such  expression.  He  may 
express  it  in  action,  and  this  is  the  most  effective  means 
of  expression  and  altogether  the  most  satisfactory,  when 
the  thought   is  a  series  of  events,  or  an  account  of  an 


J 


IMITATION  173 

action.  The  form  of  expression  that  is  most  satisfactory 
in  any  particular  case  depends  upon  the  nature  of  the 
thing  that  is  thought.  If  it  is  a  story  of  occurrences, 
then  action  is  the  most  satisfactory  form  of  expression, 
and  is  the  form  that  w  ill  most  etticiently  help  the  child 
to  organize  his  thought. 

More  than  this,  it  may  be  said  that  thought  is  im- 
possible without  some  form  of  muscular  movement  which 
constitutes  the  expression.  With  little  children,  the 
larger  movements  that  intiuence  the  whole  body  are  more 
efHcient  means  of  assisting  thought  than  are  the  smaller 
movements  employed  in  speaking. 

Reply  to  the  Ari^iti)ie)it. — To  this  it  may  be  replied 
that  the  children  have  already  learned  to  express  the 
thought  in  words.  If  we  teach  them  to  express  the  same 
thought  in  action  after  they  have  learned  to  express  it  in 
words,  we  are  encouraging  a  lower  form  of  expression 
and  placing  less  value  upon  the  higher.  Speech  is  a 
higher  form  of  expression  than  is  action,  and  it  is 
farther  removed  from  the  primitive  form.  Children  are 
capable  of  expressing  cjuite  accurately  their  thoughts  in 
actions  long  before  they  can  ex])ress  them  in  words.  A 
father  heard  a  cry  from  his  two-year-old  child.  1  le  came 
down  stairs  and  said,  "What's  the  matter,  Uaby?"  The 
baby  pointed  to  his  mother,  saying,  "  "m — 'm'm — ."  then 
viciously  spatted  his  hands  together,  leaving  no  doubt 
in  the  mind  of  the  father  what  was  the  occasion  of  the 
baby's  cry. 

Action  (7   Primitirc  Form   of  Expression. — The   race 


174  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

employed  action  to  express  thought  long  before  language 
was  invented,  and  action  is  a  form  of  expression  pecu- 
liarly appropriate  for  children  in  the  prehuman  stage. 
So  great  was  the  change  from  action  to  speech  as  a 
means  of  expression  that  we  employ  it  to  mark  the  sepa- 
ration between  the  human  and  the  prehuman  condition 
of  the  race.  It  would  therefore  seem  that  in  dramatiza- 
tion we  are  encouraging  a  lower  form  of  expression  to 
the  discouragement  of  the  higher.  It  would  seem  that 
we  were  undertaking  to  assist  the  children  to  overcome 
the  advantages  of  civilization. 

Example  of  Teachers  of  the  Z)ca/.— Perhaps  the 
practice  of  the  teachers  of  the  deaf  has  some  relation  to 
this  discussion.  It  is  the  constant  effort  of  teachers  of 
the  deaf  to  prevent  the  expression  of  thought  by  action, 
or  sign  language.  They  act  upon  the  principle  that  if 
the  deaf  children  are  encouraged  or  permitted  to  use 
the  language  of  action,  it  w^ill  be  distinctly  detrimental 
to  their  progress  in  oral  expression.  The  wisdom  of  the 
teachers  of  the  deaf  may  be  questioned,  but  their  prac- 
tice is  rather  opposed  to  the  principle  involved  in  drama- 
tization. 

DraiJiatication  Clarifies  Thought. — The  third  reason 
advanced  in  justification  of  dramatization  in  school  is 
tliat  it  clarifies  the  thought  of  the  children  and  makes 
more  real  to  them  the  thought  already  secured.  It  is 
by  action  that  the  chiUl  organizes  the  thought  into  his 
own  consciousness,  and  he  can  do  this  better  through 
his  muscular  activity  than  merely  by  means  of  words. 


J 


IMITATION  175 

Reply  to  the  Argiuncnt. — In  opposition  to  this  view 
it  is  argued  that  the  child  already  has  the  thought  in  mind 
which  he  wishes  to  express  in  action,  and  that  he  cannot 
express  it  in  action  any  more  clearly  than  he  has  it  in 
mind.  Dramatic  action  is  inevitably  hampered  by  many 
material  limitations.  A  person  who  can  read,  and  who 
is  able  to  picture  to  himself  the  actions  that  are  ex- 
pressed in  words  is  not  limited  in  his  thought  by  these 
material  conditions.  Hence  it  is  that  the  intelligent 
reader  is  likely  to  have  a  more  adequate  interpretation  of 
\he  thought  than  that  which  is  obtained  by  the  best 
dramatic  representation.  Dramatic  rendering  of  plays  is 
more  likely  to  be  popular  with  those  who  cannot  read 
adequately  than  with  those  who  can.  Shakespeare's 
plays  were  more  popular  with  the  unlettered  populace 
of  his  time  than  they  are  today,  although  many  people 
read  them  with  great  appreciation. 

When  Justified. — There  is  likely  to  be  something  of 
a  sense  of  disappointment  when  we  see  a  dramatic  inter- 
pretation of  a  play  with  which  we  are  already  familiar 
through  reading  which  does  not  occur  if  we  have  not  read 
it.  If  a  dramatic  rendering  of  a  stor}-  leads  to  a  higher 
conception  of  the  thought  than  can  be  obtained  without 
it,  then  dramatization  is  helpful  and  fully  justified.  But 
if  a  child  has  already  obtained  a  fairly  adequate  notion 
of  the  story,  then  the  interpretation  of  it  in  any  manner 
that  will  cause  a  fall  or  drop  in  his  conception  is  not 
helpful,  hut  harmful.  Few  people  would  expect  to  have 
their   conception   of   the   tragedy  on   Calvary   intensified 


176  PRINCIPLES  OP   TEACHING 

by  a  dramatic  rendition  of  the  circumstances,  and  Mil- 
ton's Battle  in  Heaven  would  be  but  a  burlesque  when 
acted  out  under  material  limitations.  It  may  be  that 
children's  dramatizations  are  susceptible  to  the  same  criti- 
cisms. 

Unconscious  Imitation. — Imitation  is  not  always  con- 
scious imitation.  In  fact,  it  is  seldom  so.  The  action 
that  is  seen  is  generall\  imitated  unconsciously.  When 
a  person  is  watching  a  game  of  baseball  or  football,  his 
muscles  undergo  the  same  contractions,  in  slight  degrees 
only,  of  course,  as  do  the  muscles  of  the  players.  So  at 
the  conclusion  of  an  exciting  game  the  spectator  is  fre- 
quently almost  as  tired  as  are  the  players.  A  person  who 
looks  at  a  statue,  involuntarily  and  of  necessity  puts 
himself  into  the  attitude  of  the  figure,  and  expresses  by 
that  involuntary  attitude  the  thoughts  and  emotions  which 
the  figure  represents.  If  the  figure  represents  a  vigorous 
action,  the  movement  of  the  muscles  and  the  posture  of 
the  body  are  quite  noticeably  in  conformity  with  that  of 
the  figure.  What  is  really  imitated  is  the  thought  in  the 
mind  of  the  observer  which  the  figure  arouses  in  him. 
If  a  person  should  misinterpret  a  figure,  and  perceive  in 
it  an  expression  of  joy,  while  the  artist's  intention  was  to 
represent  extreme  anguish,  the  mistaken  observer  would 
imitate  the  joyous  attitude. 

Imitation  of  Ideas  Read. — The  ideas  aroused  in  the 
mind  by  reading  are  imitated  in  some  slight  degree  in 
every  case.  Hence  the  importance  of  reading  good  books 
and  of  refusing  to  read  bad  or  indififerent  ones;  for  the 


IMliAilON  177 

ideas  that  the  books  express  will  be  imitated  in  some 
slight  degree  and  will  modify  the  character  of  the  reader. 
In  fact,  we  have  here  a  standard  of  judging  whether  a 
book  is  good  or  bad. 

Example  of  the  Great  Stone  Face. — We  have  an 
admirable  example  of  unconscious  imitation  and  its  re- 
sults in  Hawthorne's  story  of  the  Great  Stone  Face. 
Here  was  a  boy  who  had  looked  for  years  upon  the 
majesty  of  the  Great  Stone  Face  and  who  had  eagerly 
watched  for  the  man  who  should  represent  in  his  features 
and  in  his  character  the  ideas  which  the  Great  Stone 
Face  expressed.  Year  after  year  he  had  gazed  upon 
the  face,  and  his  thoughts  had  involuntarily  conformed  to 
those  which  it  expressed.  At  length,  after  many  disap- 
pointments, the  neighbors  observed  that  Ernest  himself 
was  the  man  who  so  closely  resembled  the  Great  Stone 
Face.  His  contemplation  of  the  face  for  so  many  years 
and  his  unconscious  imitation  of  the  ideas  which  the  face 
expressed  had  molded  his  features  into  the  likeness  of  the 
expression  that  existed  upon  the  face. 

School  Surroundings  Imitated. — We  have  in  this  fact 
of  unconscious  imitation  the  reason  for  making  the  school 
surroundings  as  good  as  it  is  possible  to  have  them.  The 
school  represents  the  ideals  and  ideas  of  the  community. 
Every  article  of  furniture,  every  element  in  the  archi- 
tecture of  the  building,  every  item  of  decoration  on  its 
walls,  every  portion  of  the  school  grounds  and  the  school 
surroundings  expresses  the  idea  of  somebodv,  and  that 
idea   will  be  imitated  by  the  children,  and   wilFmodify 


178  PRIXCIPLES   OF   TEACHIXG 

their  character.  Hence  it  is  necessary  that  the  ideas 
which  the  school  surroundings  express  shall  be  of  such 
a  nature  as  will  make  their  imitation  advantageous. 

Imitate  What  is  Admired. — The  child  is  very  suscepti- 
ble to  sugsfestion.  He  imitates  most  readilv  that  which 
he  most  admires ;  for  admiration  is  a  feeling  of  kinship 
with  himself,  and  is  a  form  of  interest.  The  teacher  can 
contribute  somewhat  to  the  efficiency  of  imitation  by 
leading  the  pupils  to  admire  the  good  and  to  dislike  the 
bad.  Children  imitate  best  what  they  most  admire,  or 
that  with  which  they  feel  the  nearest  relationship. 

Synopsis. 

1.  Imitation  is  the  most  important  interest  in  child- 
hood, and  is  the  one  upon  which  the  primary  teacher 
must  principally  depend. 

2.  The  first  actions  of  children  are  reflexes,  but  by 
the  process  of  imitation  they  pass  over  into  conscious 
voluntary  actions. 

3.  The  child  learns  to  interpret  the  actions  and  ideas 
of  other  persons  by  a  process  of  imitation.  Ideas  may  be 
imitated.  It  is  a  proper  use  of  the  word  in  a  very  ex- 
tended sense,  to  say  that  every  purposive  action  is  the 
imitation  of  an  idea  entertained  by  the  actor. 

4.  Imitation  passes  over  into  originality,  or  creation, 
by  two  processes ;  first,  accidental  variation  ;  second,  by 
intentional  variation,  for  the  purpose  of  increasing  the 
pleasant  feeling. 

5.  Children  imitate  the  bad   rather  than  the  good, 


IMITATION  179 

because  the  bad  is  something'  that  is  not  so  far  removed 
as  the  good  from  their  present  condition  of  development. 
The  good  is  something  that  approximates  more  nearly 
to  the  ideals  of  older  people,  hence,  is  farther  removed 
from  the  present  stage  of  development  of  the  child. 

6.  The  principles  of  imitation  must  enter  into  the 
discussion  of  the  utility  of  dramatization,  good  reading, 
and  development  of  character. 


CHAPTER  XL 
Apperception. 

Herbartian  Conception  of  Mind. — Apperception 
means  the  process  by  which  a  new  idea  is  joined  to 
old  ideas  and  a  new  thing  is  learned.  The  discussion 
of  apperception,  therefore,  involves  an  understanding  of 
the  whole  learning  process.  The  word  is  adopted  from 
the  philosophical  utterances  of  the  German  philosopher 
Herbart,  and  in  order  to  understand  his  explanation  of 
the  term,  we  must  know  something  of  his  conception  of 
the  mind.  Other  psychologists  had  regarded  the  mind 
as  an  active  thing  capable  of  doing  something  of  itself; 
but  Herbart  regarded  it  as  inactive.  He  thought  of  the 
mind  under  the  figure  of  a  room,  into  which  and  out  of 
which  ideas,  which  are  the  active  things,  came  and  went. 
Ideas  are  in  the  mind  or  out  of  the  mind,  and  our  com- 
mon habit  of  speech  corresponds  to  this  notion  of  the 
relation  of  ideas  to  the  mind. 

The  Threshold  of  Coiiscioiisitess. — When  an  idea 
comes  into  the  mind,  it  is  said  to  rise  above  the  threshold 
of  consciousness.  This  is  one  <if  the  Herbartian  phrases 
which  it  is  necessary  for  us  to  understand  before  we  can 
read  Herbartian  literature  readily.  The  figure  assumes 
that  the  ideas  come  into  the  mind  from  below,  as  through 
a  floor  by  means  of  a  trap  door.    When  an  idea  is  in  the 

ISO 


AlM'KKCl'.l'l  lO.V  1<^1 

mind  w  u  are  C(in>cii)us  ui  it,  and  when  it  i^  diU  ol  llie 
mind  we  are  unennscious  of  il.  Il  is  said  to  rise  above 
the  threshold  of  consciousness,  or  to  sink  below  the 
threshold. 

Related  Ideas. — When  an  idea  rises  above  the  thresh- 
old of  consciousness,  it  immediately  looks  around  for 
acquaintances.  If  it  finds  none,  it  has  difficulty  in  main- 
taining; its  position,  and  is  very  likely  to  be  thrust  out 
of  the  mind  into  outer  darkness  by  the  other  ideas,  or 
to  sink  below  the  threshold  of  consciousness,  never  to 
appear,  or  to  reappear  only  after  a  ver\-  long  time.  If, 
however,  the  new  idea  finds  many  intimate  friends  and 
close  relatives,  it  immediately  attaches  itself  to  them, 
forms  a  close  connection,  and  coheres  firmly  with  them  : 
and  is  with  difficulty  thrust  out.  It  is  maintained  in  the 
mind  by  the  power  and  influence  of  its  friends  and  family 
connections. 

focus  of  ConscioiiS)icss. — Every  idea  in  the  mind  is 
a  competitor  with  every  other  idea;  or,  it  would  perhaps 
be  better  to  say,  every  family  group  of  ideas  in  the  mind 
which  cohere  closely  with  each  other,  is  a  competitor  with 
every  other  family  group.  Xot  all  places  in  the  mind  are 
equally  desirable,  nor  of  equal  value.  They  are  like  the 
seats  at  a  baseball  game.  As  soon  as  an  idea  has  come 
into  the  mind  and  formed  a  connection  with  its  friends 
and  relatives,  it  immediately  begins  to  push  for  the  most 
advantageous  position  in  the  front  row  of  seats  in  the 
grand  stand.  If  its  family  group  is  sufficiently  numer- 
ous and  powerful,  they  drag  it  up  to  the  front  row.     If 


182  PRTXCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

its  family  group  is  not  very  strong,  it  is  likely  to  find 
itself  put  away  off  into  the  left  field  bleachers,  providing 
it  is  not  ejected  from  the  ball  grounds  entirely. 

The  Appcrcewing  Mass. — In  Herbartian  English,  we 
may  say  that  some  idea  is  constantly  in  the  focus  of  con- 
sciousness, while  other  ideas  are  in  the  fringe.  We  see 
that  the  position  which  the  new  idea  secures  depends 
largely  upon  the  number  and  strength  of  the  group  of 
its  relatives,  and  the  closeness  of  the  connection  it  is 
enabled  to  form  with  them.  This  group  of  related  ideas 
with  which  the  new  idea  colieres,  and  by  means  of  which 
it  is  enabled  to  maintain  its  position  in  the  mind  is  called 
the  appcncck'ing  mass.  It  is  evident  that  some  one  or 
more  of  the  ideas  in  the  apperceiving  mass  will  be  more 
closely  related  to  the  new  than  will  others,  and 
that  it  will  form  the  closest  connection  with  that  one, 
or  with  those  that  are  most  nearly  related  to  it.  So  we 
see  that  the  larger  the  apperceiving  mass,  the  greater 
the  probability  that  there  will  be  some  one  idea  with 
which  the  new  can  form  a  close  connection,  and  to  which 
it  can  cohere  most  firmly.  This  emphasizes  the  impor- 
tance of  a  large  apperceiving  mass. 

Illustration. — This  discussion  of  the  apperceiving  mass 
indicates  for  us  the  real  process  of  learning,  and  sug- 
gests why  some  things  are  learned  so  much  more  readily 
than  others.  A  dressmaker,  or  some  other  person  who 
is  accustomed  to  observing  women's  costumes  could  see 
as  much  in  a  minute  about  a  woman's  costume  at  church 
as  could  a  student  of  entomology  in  a  month.     But  the 


APPERCEPTION  183 

Student  of  entomology  would  probably  manifest  an  equally 
decided  superiority  over  the  dressmaker  if  the  oliject  to 
be  observed  were  a  grasshopper  or  some  other  member 
of  a  group  of  insects.  The  dressmaker  would  have  a 
very  large  apperceiving  mass  of  ideas  about  women's 
costumes,  while  the  entomologist  would  have  a  very  small 
one.  In  the  case  of  the  grasshopper,  the  condition  of 
the  apperceiving  mass  would  be  directly  reversed.  We 
learn  most  easily  about  that  of  which  we  already  know 
the  most.  Knowledge  attracts  related  knowledge  to  it- 
self. In  undertaking  a  new  subject  it  is  the  beginning 
that  is  always  difficult. 

Modification  of  a  Xcic  Idea. — \Mien  a  new  idea  comes 
into  the  mind,  the  group  of  related  ideas  at  once  proceeds 
to  modify  it.  x^Il  of  them  proceed  to  change  it  in  some 
way,  and  usually  they  succeed,  and  so  the  new  idea  is 
assimilated  to  the  old  ones.  It  is  true  that  the  new  idea 
also  modifies  the  old  ones  to  a  certain  extent;  but  usuall\- 
the  old  ideas  are  so  much  more  numerous  and  so  much 
stronger  that  the  effect  which  the  new  idea  produces 
upon  the  mass  of  old  ones  is  so  small  as  to  be  inap- 
preciable. Occasionally,  however,  the  new  idea  is  so 
strong  and  masterful  in  its  nature  that  it  changes  the 
entire  apperceiving  mass  more  than  the  apperceiving 
mass  can  change  it.  and  then  we  say  that  the  person  has 
been  converted.  Conversion  is  a  term  that  is  commonlv 
employed  in  a  religious  sense,  but  it  is  properly  applied 
to  every  process  by  which  the  ojiinion  of  a  person  is 
changed. 


184  I'KIXCII'LES   OF   TEACHING 

Criticisms   of   tlic   Doctrine   of   .Ippcrccption. — There 
are  two  valid  criticisms  upon  the  Herbartian  statement 

of  the  doctrine  of  apperception.  The  first,  that  it  is 
highly  figurative,  and  like  any  other  figure,  it  may  be 
carried  very  easily  beyond  the  point  where  it  is  service- 
able, and  then  it  is  likely  to  hinder  rather  than  help 
our  thinking.  In  the  second  place  it  is  altogether  me- 
chanical and  static  rather  than  dynamic.  No  one  really 
believes  that  an}-thing  like  what  the  figure  supposes  ac- 
tually occurs.  No  one  supposes  that  there  is  a  real  room 
for  the  mind,  nor  a  real  threshold,  nor  that  ideas  really 
cohere,  nor  that  they  form  an  apperceiving  mass.  Wlien 
any  figure  of  this  kind  is  carried  far  enough,  it  breaks 
down  under  its  own  weight.  This  conception  of  the 
mind  fails  to  take  into  consideration  the  developments 
of  psycholog}-  that  have  been  made  in  the  past  hundred 
years  :  and  so  it  is  lacking  in  some  very  important  ap- 
proximations to  truth  that  may  now  be  made. 

Physiological  Processes  hn'olved. — It  appears  that  a 
very  much  better  statement  of  all  that  is  valuable  in  the 
Herbartian  doctrine  of  apperception  may  be  made  by 
applying  a  physiological  figure,  ^^'e  know  that  every 
mental  process  is  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  physi- 
ological change,  wliicli  always  consists  of  a  nervous 
impulse  passing  through  a  nervous  arc.  \\"hat  the  na- 
ture of  the  connection  may  be  between  the  mental  process 
and  the  physiological  change,  whether  one  is  the  cause 
of  the  other,  or  whether  both  are  caused  by  some  third 
thing  we  cannot  state.     But  we  mav  be  safe  in  assert- 


Al'I'EKClil'TIOX  185 

ing  that  \vhate\  er  relation  one  such  physiological  process 
holds  to  other  physiological  processes  of  this  kind,  the 
same  relation  will  obtain  between  the  corresponding  men  - 
tal  processes. 

A  new  idea  gets  into  the  mind  through  the  senses. 
Force,  originating  in.  or  modified  by,  some  object  sets 
up  an  impulse  in  tlie  end  organ  of  the  sensory  nerve. 
The  impuI.^e  is  transmitted  to  its  appropriate  brain  center, 
with  wh.ich  the  sensory  nerve  is  connected.  The  mental 
concomitant  is  a  sensation,  which  is  one  of  the  ele- 
ments of  the  percept  formed  by  a  combination  of 
several  sensations  experienced  at  the  same  time  and 
modified  by  each  other.  When  this  percept  is  reproduced 
without  the  previous  peripherally  initiated  impulses  ac- 
companying it  we  may  call  it  an  idea.  The  idea,  properly 
so  called,  is  not  accompanied  by  a  peripherally  initiated 
impulse,  but  only  centrally  initiated  ones,  which  traverse 
a  combination  of  brain  cells  which  we  may  call  center 

1.  Let  us  suppose  that  there  is  another  brain  center  or 
combination    of   brain   cells,   which    we   may   call   center 

2,  closely  connected  with  brain  center  1.  We  may  sup- 
pose that  some  of  the  cells  which  constitute  center  1  are 
the  same  cells  winch  cdustitule  a  ])()rtinn  of  center  2. 
When  an  itupulse  traverses  combination  1,  it  is  easilv 
diverted  into  combination  2.  since  some  of  the  cells  of  1 
belong  also  to  combination  2.  When  2  is  traversed  by  an 
impulse,  a  different  idea  is  experienced  from  that  which 
is  experienced  when  1  is  traversed.  In  like  man- 
ner    we     may     suppose     that     other     combinations     of 


186  PRIXCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

brain  cells,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9  are  connected 
with  1  or  2  or  with  each  other,  so  that  an  impulse 
starting  in  any  one  of  them  is  hkely  to  be  transmitted 
through  all  of  them  with  little  resistance,  or  without 
beine  thrown  into  brain  centers  that  are  unconnected 
with  the  first.  This  group  of  cells  designated  by  1  may 
be  considered  as  corresponding  to  the  simple  perception, 


C\\-cles   \o    SWov«    (X^<»oc\dX\on. 


Circles  Showing  Physiological  Processes  Involved. 


2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9  represent  the  related  ideas,  or  the 
apperceiving  mass.  The  figure  on  this  page  show?  the 
centers  of  the  apperceiving  mass  as  closely  approximate 
in  space,  but  it  is  not  necessary  that  this  should  be  so. 
It  is  necessary  only  that  they  should  be  so  connected  as 
to  ofifer  little  resistance  to  the  transmission  of  an  im- 
juilse  from  one  to  the  other.     Two  centers  may  be  the 


APPERCEPTION  187 

full  length  of  the  brain  apart,  but  so  connected  by  asso- 
ciation fibres  that  the  impulse  readily  passes  from  one 
to  tlie  other,  and  the  efifect  may  be  as  satisfactory  as 
if  they  were  closely  approximate  and  had  some  cells  in 
common. 

Apperception  Described  in  Physiological  Terms. — 
We  thus  discover  in  our  physiological  hypothesis  some- 
thing- to  correspond  to  every  element  of  the  Herbartian 
figure,  without  involving  any  of  the  manifest  absurdities 
which  it  employs.  The  new  idea  corresponds  to  the  new^ 
combination  of  brain  cells  which  is  traversed  for  the 
first  time  by  a  nervous  impulse.  It  may  be  that 
these  same  brain  cells  have  entered  into  other 
combinations  before,  but  the  nervous  impulse  passes 
through  them  in  a  new  combination.  The  apperceiving 
mass  corresponds  to  the  different  brain  centers,  or  com- 
binations of  brain  cells  that  have  cells  in  common  with 
the  new  combination  or  which  are  closely  connected  with 
it  in  some  way.  The  idea  rises  above  the  threshold  of 
consciousness  when  th.e  nervous  impulse  traverses  that 
particular  combination  of  brain  cells.  The  idea  is  modi- 
fied by  the  old  ideas,  since  the  specific  direction  that 
the  nervous  impulse  takes  in  passing  through  the  brain 
center  is  determined  in  part  by  the  previous  experience 
of  the  cells  that  arc  traversed  in  their  new  combination. 
Sensations  that  are  experienced  at  the  same  time,  or  that 
are  related  by  simultaneous  association,  modify  each 
other,  as  we  can  see  in  contrasted  colors  or  tastes ;  and 
the  same  thing  is  true  of  percepts  and  ideas.    The  mind  is 


1S8  I'KTNCIPLRS   OF    TEACH  I  XC. 

uol  a  rodiii,  hut  il  i^  the  sum  nl  all  lucutal  processes 
which  \\c  experience,  and  these  mental  processes  have 
their  ]:)hysiological  conci>iniianls  in  the  nervous  impulses 
which  are  transmitted  at  the  same  time. 

AilixintOL^c  of  the  Phy-sioloi^ical  Iiitcrpn-talion. — The 
advantage  of  this  physiological  interpretation  of  appercep- 
tion is  that  something  of  this  kind  must  actually  occur. 
The  difference  between  what  we  have  supposed  to  occur 
and  what  actually  does  occur  is  the  fact  that  the  actual 
occurrences  are  })robabl_\'  a  hundred  times  as  complex 
as  what  we  assumed  them  to  be. 

Results  of  Diseitssioii  of  Apperception. — The  intro- 
duction of  the  word  apperception  into  the  educational 
discussions  of  this  country  contributed  little  to  the  im- 
provement of  thought  upon  educational  processes.  Every- 
thing of  value  in  the  idea  of  apperception  was  already 
expressed  by  such  terms  as  mental  assimilation,  mental 
association,  and  kindred  words.  The  discussions  that 
followed  the  introduction  of  the  word,  however,  were  of 
the  greatest  service.  In  t!ie  first  place,  the  study  of 
the  process  now  knov.'n  as  apperception  has  compelled 
us  to  modify  materially  the  statement  of  some  of  our 
best  established  educational  maxims,  ^^'e  have  heard 
it  said  that  in  the  process  of  teaching  or  learning  we 
should  go  from  the  known  to  the  unknown.  In  conse- 
quence of  our  study  of  apperception,  we  know  now  that 
we  must  proceed  from  the  known  to  the  related  un- 
known. The  emphasis  is  thrown  upon  the  word  "related." 
for  there  is  no  real  value  in  going  from  the  known  to 


I 


Al'l'LlKCL-l'llUX  18'J 

the  unknown  if  the  unknown  is  unrelated  tu  the  known. 
We  may  know  well  the  theorem  about  the  square  upon 
the  hypotenuse,  but  it  is  of  no  assistance  in  learning  the 
unknown  about  the  temperature  of  the  carboniferous  age. 
The  unknown  that  we  must  reach  is  the  unknown  that 
is  related  to  the  known. 

Effect  of  Apperception  Upon  Formal  Discipline. — 
In  the  second  place,  the  discussion  of  apperception  has 
been  disastrous  to  the  doctrine  of  formal  discipline,  or 
mental  discipline  as  an  aim  in  education  (See  page  70). 
The  theor\-  of  formal  discipline  is  that  if  the  mind  be- 
comes well  trained  in  the  study  of  one  thing,  the  power 
so  gained  is  perfectl}'  available  for  the  learning  of  any- 
thing else.  We  know  now  that  this  is  not  true.  The 
power  to  learn  a  new  thing  depends  upon  the  amount 
and  character  of  the  apperceiving  mass.  If  this  apper- 
ceivinq-  mass  is  a  mass  of  unrelated  ideas,  it  does  not 
assist  at  all  in  learning  the  new.  If  the  brain  centers 
traversed  when  learning  one  thing  are  not  closely  con- 
nected with  the  brain  centers  that  are  traversed  by  im- 
pulses which  accompany  tb.e  mental  processes  involved 
in  learning  a  new  thing,  then  the  experiences  of  the 
first  brain  centers  will  not  facilitate  in  the  least  the 
traversing  of  the  new  combinations  of  brain  cells  in- 
volved in  learning  the  new.  The  study  of  Latin  may 
assist  in  learning  a  new  language,  but  it  will  not  materi- 
ally forward  the  learning  of  the  principles  of  architecture, 
nor  the  methods  of  assaying. 

Mefhtnl   of  Learning. — Third,   the  discussion   of   ap- 


190  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACIIIXG 

perception  has  shown  us  the  true  method  of  learning 
anything.  The  new  thing  is  learned  by  relating  it  to 
something  already  known.  It  is  a  mistake  to  learn  a 
new  thing  as  if  it  were  unrelated  to  everything  else  in 
the  universe.  All  knowledge  is  relative,  and  the  rela- 
tions in  which  it  exists  must  be  perceived  if  we  are 
to  learn  things  well. 

What  is  Meant  by  Relation. — We  have  been  using 
this  principle  of  relativity  so  much  and  shall  have  oc- 
casion to  use  it  further  to  such  an  extent  that  it  seems 
necessary  for  us  to  have  a  clear  understanding  of  what 
it  means.  We  can  best  approach  the  meaning  of  relativity 
by  going  back  to  the  laws  of  association.  The  words 
which  express  relation  in  our  language  are  especially 
the  prepositions ;  aboard,  about,  above,  across,  after, 
against,  along,  etc.,  through  all  the  long  list  that  our 
grammars  give.  Each  of  these  words  expresses  a  rela- 
tion that  can  be  exhibited  by  holding  one  object  in  some 
position  relative  to  another.  The  position  that  one  holds 
with  reference  to  another  is  an  exemplification  of  rela- 
tion. 

Phenomena  of  Association. — If  we  should  select  any 
word  such  as  "watch,"  and  write  down  immedi- 
ately after  thinking  of  that  word  the  succession  of 
words  that  appear  to  us,  without  trying  to  make  any 
selection,  we  should  find  that  our  list  of  successive  w^ords 
are  related  to  each  other  in  ways  that  we  might  describe. 
Thus  if  we  should  follow  the  word  "watch"  with  nine 
Others,    we   might   have   a   list   such   as   the    following: 


APPERCEPTION  191 

Watch,  works,  case,  gold,  mine,  rock,  drill,  bore,  tunnel, 
Hoosac,  canal,  Panama,  The  relation  between  watch 
and  works  is  that  of  part  and  whole.  The  relation  be- 
tween works  and  case  is  container  and  the  thing  con- 
tained. The  relation  between  case  and  gold  is  that  of 
object  and  material  of  which  it  is  made.  The  relation 
between  gold  and  mine  is  that  of  substance  (or  material) 
and  source  or  origin.  So  we  may  discover  and  state 
the  relation  between  any  two  of  the  different  pairs  of 
words. 

Lazi's  of  Association. — Older  psychologists  undertook 
to  state  a  complete  list  of  these  Laws  of  Association, 
as  they  called  them.  We  know  now  that  a  law  of  asso- 
ciation is  a  statement  of  the  relation  existing  between 
two  things  or  ideas,  and  that  there  are  as  many  laws 
of  association  as  there  are  relations  existing  between 
things.  It  follows  that  a  complete  list  of  laws  of  asso- 
ciation is  impossible,  but  the  lists  that  were  made  will 
help  us  to  an  understanding  of  what  is  meant  by  relation. 

Emimcratioii  of  Laivs. — Some  of  the  laws  of  asso- 
ciation that  were  stated  were  as  follows :  Contiguity, 
coexistence,  similarity,  contrast,  cause  and  eft"ect,  part 
and  whole,  substance  and  quality.  The  law  of  contiguity 
means  that  when  the  idea  of  one  thing  comes  into  the 
mind  it  is  likely  to  be  followed  by  the  idea  of  another 
thing  that  has  existed  or  been  experienced  in  the  same 
place.  The  law  of  coexistence  means  that  when  the 
idea  of  one  thing  comes  into  the  mind  it  is  likely  to  be 
followed  by  the  idea  of  some  other  thing  that  has  been 


192  I'RIXCll'LES   OK    TKACIIING 

experienced  at  the  same  time.  The  idea  of  contrast 
means  that  when  the  idea  of  one  thing  comes  into  the 
mind  it  is  hkely  to  he  followed  by  the  idea  of  another 
thing-  as  different  as  possible  from  the  hrst. 

Reduction   of  .ill  Laws  to   a   Siiii^U-   One. — The   at- 
tempt was  often  made  to  rednce  these  laws  of  association 
to  a  single  law,  or  to  ;i.  single  principle  of  association, 
and  with  a  considerable  degree  of  snccess.     The  law  of 
contiguity  is  believed   by   some  to  l)e  broad  enough   to 
cover  all  forms  of  association,  while  others  believe  that 
the  law  of  similarity  can  be  extended  until  it  is  broad 
enough  to  cover  all  cases.     It  really  seems  as  if  w^e  could 
show  that  by  extending  the  meaning  of  the  word  resem- 
blance, we  might  make  it  broad  enough  to  cover  ever>- 
form  of  association,  and  to  include  all  laws  of  associa- 
tion and  all  kinds  of  relation  under  the  term.     The  law 
of  contiguity  can  be  so  reduced.     Two  things  that  are 
contiguous    resemble    each    other    in    their    position,    or 
spatial  situation.     Two  things  that  coexist  resemble  each 
other  in  the  characteristic  of  time.     The  law  of  contrast 
would  seem  to  be  the  most  difficult  to  bring  under  this 
law  of  resemblance,  for  contrast  means  the  farthest  pos- 
sible awav   from   resemblance.      A   tall   man  suggests   a 
short  man.  and  we  can  show  that  the  relation  is  one  of 
resemblance.     In  tlie  first  place,  the  tall  man  is  like  the 
short  man  in  the  fact  that  both  of  them  differ  from  the 
ordinary  man.  who  is  neither  tall  nor  short.     They  have 
this  resemblance,  that  they  are  both  unlike  the  average 
man.     Then,   in   the   second   place,   they   are  both   men 


APPERCEPTION  193 

and  ihe  relation  of  contrast  is  possible  only  between 
two  beings  uf  the  same  order  of  existence.  A  siphon 
and  psychology  are  scarcely  capable  of  forming  a  con- 
trasting pair. 

TJic  Lau's  of  Resemblance. — In  some  such  way  as 
this  we  may  iind  it  possible  to  reduce  all  laws  of  asso- 
ciation and  all  forms  of  relation  to  a  single  form,  which 
by  enlarging  somewhat  the  meaning  of  the  term,  we 
may  call  resemblance.  Hence  we  may  say  that  by  rela- 
tion we  mean  the  resemblance  that  one  thing  bears  to 
another.  The  perception,  then,  of  relation  is  the  per- 
ception of  a  resemblance,  or  the  perception  of  the  way 
in  which  one  thing  is  like  another.  If  we  can  realize 
this  conception  of  relation  it  will  be  of  very  great  as- 
sistance to  us  in  understanding  the  processes  of  think- 
ing and  of  teaching. 

Physiological  Iiiferpretafion  of  Resemblance. — Physi- 
ologically, we  may  express  relation  in  terms  of  nervous 
impulse.  Two  ideas  are  related  to  each  other  when  the 
same  nervous  impulse  passes  from  the  brain  center  that 
is  traversed  when  we  experience  one  idea,  directly  into 
the  brain  center  that  is  traversed  when  we  experience 
the  other  idea.  Let  us  draw  two  circles  that  intersect. 
Let  one,  circle  A,  represent  the  combination  of  brain 
cells  that  is  traversed  by  an  impulse  when  we  experience 
the  idea  a.  Let  the  other  circle.  B,  represent  the  combi- 
nation of  brain  cells  that  is  traversed  by  an  impulse 
when  we  experience  the  idea  b.  The  common  section,  .r, 
will  represent  the  brain  cells  that  are  common  to  the 


194  rkixcii'LES  of  teaciiixi; 

two  cell  combinations  or  brain  centers.  It  will  represent 
the  clement  of  resemblance  between  tbe  two  ideas,  and 
it  will  sliow  why,  when  the  nervous  impulse  is  passing 
through  one  brain  center,  it  is  easy  for  it  to  enter  into 
and  traverse  the  other  brain  center  or  combination  of 
cells.  The  greater  the  common  segment,  the  greater 
the  resemblance  between  the  the  two  ideas,  and  the  more 
easily  the  second  mental  experience  follows  the  first. 

DcHnition  of  Reading. — With  this  digression  con- 
cerning the  nature  of  relation,  let  us  return  to  our  con- 
sideration of  the  modifications  in  educational  thought 
that  have  been  produced  by  the  discussion  of  appercep- 
tion. The  fourth  change  that  has  been  brought  about 
is  a  change  in  our  definition  of  reading.  An  early  defi- 
nition of  reading  declared  it  to  consist  of  the  pronun- 
ciation of  words  on  the  printed  page.  This  definition 
was  confessedly  inaccurate,  although  it  is  still  realized 
in  practice  in  many  places  today.  A  better  definition 
was  that  reading  is  talking  from  a  book.  This  was  in- 
tended to  emphasize  naturalness  of  expression.  Then 
we  were  told  that  reading  is  getting  the  thought  of  the 
author  from  the  printed  page  and  expressing  it ;  or 
expressing  the  thought  of  the  author.  But  no  two  per- 
sons get  the  same  thought  from  the  printed  page,  and  it 
is  probable  that  neither  of  them  gets  the  thought  that 
the  author  had.  They  have  dififerent  apperceiving  mass- 
es, and  the  ideas  that  are  awakened  in  them  are  modified 
in  accordance  with  the  apperceiving  mass  which  each 
one  possesses.     So  we  may  see  that  the  thought  which 


d 


Ari'EKciii'iiox  195 

is  obtained  is  not  the  author's  thought,  but  it  is  the 
reader's  thought. 

We  see  that  in  llic  hght  of  our  discussion  of  apper- 
ception, we  must  define  reading  as  expressing  the  thought 
that  is  aroused  in  us  by  the  words  of  the  printed  page. 
It  is  our  own  tliought  that  is  expressed,  and  not  the 
author's  thought.  It  mav  even  be  verv  dilTerent  from  the 
author's  thought. 

Importance   of  Appcrcciving   Mass. — We   are  ready 

also  to  understand  what  is  meant  by  saying  that  we  get 
from  a  book  only  that  which  we  take  to  it.  If  we  have 
no  related  ideas,  we  get  nothing  from  reading  a  book, 
although  we  may  know  the  meaning  of  every  \vord  that 
is  used.  \\'e  interpret  everything  that  we  read  in  terms 
of  our  own  apperceiving  mass.  If  our  apperceiving 
mass  is  very  large,  we  shall  be  able  to  interpret  very 
fully  what  we  get  from  a  book.  If  our  apperceiving 
mass  is  small,  we  shall  get  but  little  from  our  reading 
of  the  book.  Whether  we  get  much  or  little  depends 
upon  whether  our  apperceiving  mass  is  large  or  small. 
Ihistraiion  of  Apperception. — There  was  once  a  little 
girl  verv  precocious  in  the  matter  of  sewing.  She  made 
doll  dresses  and  was  skillful  with  her  needle.  It  had 
been  snowing,  and  going  out  of  the  house  she  gathered 
some  snow  from  the  ledge  just  above  the  base  board. 
She  was  eating  the  snow  before  the  fire  when  some  one 
asked.  "Alice,  where  did  you  get  the  snow?"  She  re- 
plied. "O.  I  got  it  oft  of  the  tuck  of  the  house."  Just 
so  it  is  that  wc  interpret  all  of  our  knowledge  by  means 
of  that  which  wc  alreadx    know. 


196  ri;ixciPLi£S  of  teaching 

Synopsis. 

1.  Apperception  is  a  process  by  which  new  knowledge 
is  joined  to  the  old.  A  study  of  apperception  leads  us 
to  an  understanding  of  the  whole  learning  process. 

2.  The  discussion  of  apperception  has  changed  some 
of  our  most  important  educational  maxims,  has  largely 
destroyed  our  faith  in  the  possibility  of  a  general  men- 
tal discipline,  and  has  modified  our  definition  of  read- 
ing. 

3.  It  is  possible  and  advantageous  to  understand  ap- 
perception in  physiological  terms  rather  than  in  the 
terms  of  the  Herbartian  psychology. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

The  Problem  of  Teaching  Children  How  to  Study. 

Importance  of  Study. — Teachers  are  constantly  ad- 
vised to  teach  their  children  how  to  study.  It  is,  per- 
haps, the  most  difficult  matter  which  they  have  to  con- 
sider. When  a  child  has  learned  how  to  study,  there  is 
little  else  that  the  school  can  do  for  him,  except  to  fur- 
nish him  with  opportunities,  appliances  to  employ,  and 
favorable  conditions   for  his  mental  and  moral  growth. 

Iiiiproz'cincnts  in  the  Process. — There  have  been  many 
marked  improvements  in  teaching.  But  all  the  improve- 
ments that  have  been  made  in  teaching  seem  to  consist 
of  some  modification  of  the  teacher's  duties,  and  not  any 
change  in  what  the  pupil  is  expected  to  do.  It  is  really 
a  question  whether  the  children  in  school  today  study 
anv  better  than  did  the  children  of  twenty-five  years 
ago,  and  in  some  respects  it  may  be  doubted  if  they 
study  as  well. 

Analysis  of  the  Study  Process.— AW  of  us  have 
learned  how  to  study  more  or  less  satisfactorily,  although 
some  can  studv  better  than  others.  We  have  learned  in 
a  haphazard  manner  without  any  special  instruction  in 
the  matter.  We  have  probably  not  even  stopped  to 
analyze  the  process,  so  that  when  we  undertake  to  teach 

197 


198  I'RIXCII-r.F..'^   0|.    TF.ACIIIXG 

<jur  children  liow  lo  ^tu(ly  we  luid  ourselves  unable  to 
do  so.  The  first  thin^-  for  us  to  do  is  to  analyze  the 
process  of  studying,  and  then  we  shall  Ije  better  pre- 
pared to  teach  our  pupils. 

Explanation  of  Study. — Study  is  something  that  the 
pupil  must  do,  and  not  an  activity  of  the  teacher.  It 
is  a  self-directed  activity  of  the  child.  By  study,  the 
child  gains  knowledge.  When  we  see  an  object  or  an 
event,  a  mental  process  is  established  that  corresponds 
to  the  external  event  or  object.  But  the  setting  up  of 
the  correspondence  is  not  in  itself  knowledge.  When 
I  turn  away  and  am  able  to  reproduce  the  mental  process 
which  corresponds  to  the  external  event,  then  I  say  that 
I  know  it.  It  seems  that  knowledge  demands  the  rein- 
statement of  this  previous  mental  experience  and  consists 
in  the  recognition  of  this  correspondence. 

Mental  Discipline  a  Result  of  Study. — But  study  may 
result  in  something  else  than  knowledge.  A  thing  may 
be  learned  with  a  certain  degree  of  difficulty,  and  a  second 
thing  with  a  less  degree,  in  consequence  of  the  change 
in  mental  conditions  produced  by  the  learning  of  the  first. 
This  effect  by  which  a  second  thing  is  learned  more 
easily  than  the  first  is  what  is  meant  by  mental  discipline. 
We  have  seen  that  mental  discipline  as  an  end  in  ed- 
u.cation  must  be  discredited,  but  there  is  a  very  real 
sense  in  which  mental  discipline  occurs.  The  second 
thing  is  learned  more  easily  if  it  is  related  to  the  first. 
If,  however,  the  second  thing  is  not  related  t(~)  the  fir^t, 
then  it  is  not  more  easilv  learned. 


now    TO  STUDY  199 

Physiological  Iiitcipiclation  of  Mental  Discipline. — 
This  effect  of  study  wiiich  we  call  mental  discipline  is 
the  result  of  nervous  habit.  It  is  physiological  rather 
than  mental.  There  is  more  reason  for  believing  that  the 
change  in  nerve  cells  is  the  cause  of  the  increased  facil- 
it\-  in  learning  the  second  thing  than  that  the  physiologi- 
cal process  is  the  cause  of  the  mental  process  involved 
in  learning  the  tirst  thing.  A  nervous  impulse  is  trans- 
mitted through  a  given  combination  of  brain  cells  more 
easily  the  second  time  than  it  was  the  tirst.  The  change 
is  without  any  question  a  change  in  the  physiological 
constitution  of  the  nervous  arc.  Mental  discipline  re- 
solves itself  into  physiological  habit.  Study,  then,  is 
the  self-directed  activity  of  the  child  that  results  in 
knowledge  and  in  mental  discipline,  or  physiological 
habit. 

Study  Xot  Limited  to  Books. — The  term  study  is 
sometimes  limited  to  the  learning  of  things  from  books. 
It  is  difficult  to  convince  a  teacher  who  has  spent  ten 
vears  of  his  life  in  teaching  subjects  that  constantly  in- 
volve laboratory  work  that  his  classes  in  all  that  time 
were  not  studying.  On  the  walls  of  Agassiz's  school 
barn  at  Penikese  was  placed  the  motto,  "Study  nature, 
not  books."  Tt  is  just  as  important  to  know  things  and 
to  know  how  to  study  them,  as  it  is  to  study  books,  and 
there  arc  other  objects  of  studv  than  cither  things  or 
books.  \\'c  nmst  stuflv  bonks,  bul  we  must  also  study 
Ihings  and  wc  must  ^tudy  pictures.  Three  different 
kinds  of   =tudv   are   easily   discriminated,   and   these   do 


200  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

not  exhaust  the  hst,  ahhough  these  three  are  of  especial 
importance  to  teachers. 

First  Process  in  Studying. — Let  us  examine  first  the 
process  of  studying  a  book.  Suppose  that  we  have  a 
lesson  to  learn  from  a  book,  such  as  a  history  lesson  or 
a  lesson  in  grammar.  The  first  thing  to  do  is,  evidently, 
to  read  it  over.  There  is  a  difference  between  reading 
and  studying.  When  we  read  a  history  lesson  we  are 
studying ;  when  we  read  a  dime  novel  or  a  story  in  a 
magazine,  we  are  merely  reading.  The  difference  is  that 
in  studying  we  attend  more  earnestly,  and  put  a  greater 
amount  of  nervous  energy  into  the  process  than  when 
we  merely  read.  Study  is  work.  It  demands  active 
attention,  and  there  is  effort  involved  in  the  process.  It 
may  not  always  be  accompanied  by  pleasurable  feelings, 
nor  always  by  unpleasant  feelings.  The  tone  of  the 
feeling  makes  no  difference  in  determining  whether  our 
activity  is  studying  or  reading.  The  end  desired  by 
study  is  the  learning  of  the  matter  of  the  book. 

Reading  and  Sfjidy. — Reading  is  play.  There  is  little 
or  no  effort  involved  in  it.  It  demands  only  spontan- 
eous attention,  and  the  reading  is  the  compensation  in 
itself.  We  read  for  the  pleasure  to  be  derived  from 
the  process  itself.  In  England,  the  term  read  is  often 
used  in  the  sense  in  which  we  use  the  word  study.  A 
person  says  that  he  is  reading  at  such  or  such  college. 
He  says  perhaps  he  is  reading  algebra,  meaning  that 
he  is  studying  algebra.  We  have  a  similar  use  of  the 
term  in  this  country,  which,  however,  is  less  common  than 


HOW  TO  STUDY  201 

it  formerly  was,  when  we  say  that  a  person  is  reading 
law,  or  reading  medicine.  We  mean  by  this  that  he  is 
studying  the  things  which  it  is  necessary  for  him  to 
know  in  order  to  become  a  lawyer  or  a  physician.  This 
use  of  the  word  is  disappearing,  probably  in  conse- 
quence of  the  fact  that  the  study  of  medicine  and  of  law 
is  no  longer  so  largely  confined  to  the  study  of  books. 

Second  Process  in  StndyinL^. — The  second  step  in 
the  process  of  studying  is  to  remember  what  has  been 
read.  This  may  be  done  in  two  ways.  The  words  of 
the  book  may  be  remembered,  ov  the  ideas  expressed 
may  be  remembered  and  translated  into  the  words  of  the 
pupil.  Some  teachers  demand  of  their  pupils  that  they 
commit  to  memory  the  words  of  the  text.  Although 
this  practice  is  not  so  common  as  it  once  was,  it  is  prob- 
able that  examples  of  it  may  be  found  in  the  experience 
of  every  pupil.  The  following  example  can  probably 
be  paralleled  in  the  experience  of  eyery  person  who 
reads  this  chapter: 

Illustration  of  Mcnwriaiii!:^  Lessons. — The  lesson  was 
in  physiology  with  pupils  of  high  school  age  and  grade. 
There  were  six  girls  in  the  class.  The  teacher  called 
the  class  to  the  recitation  seats,  and  then  with  a  book 
open  before  him.  he  said.  "Mary."  Mary  arose,  began 
at  the  top  of  the  page,  recited  yerbatim  through  that 
page  down  the  next  to  the  end  of  the  lesson.  Then  the 
teacher  said,  "Minnie."  Minnie  arose,  began  at  the 
same  place,  recited  yerbatim  the  same  words  down  to 
the    same    stopping    place,    and    sat    do\yn.      Then    the 


202  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACH  I  XG 

Icaclicr  said,  "Rhoda."  Rhoda  began  at  the  same  place, 
recited  the  same  text,  and  stopped  at  the  same  point  on 
the  page.  The  other  three  girls  were  called  upon  in 
the  same  way  and  recited  the  same  text.  When  the 
sixth  girl  had  recited,  the  teacher  said,  "Take  to  the 
bottom  of  page  V8  for  the  next  time.     Class  excused." 

Inadequacy  of  Learning  Lessons  by  Heart. — There 
was  something  good  about  this  lesson.  The  assignment 
was  perfectly  definite.  Every  pupil  in  the  class  knew 
exactly  what  she  was  expected  to  do  for  the  next  day. 
They  knew,  too,  when  they  had  their  lessons  prepared. 
Each  pupil  knew  that  she  would  be  called  upon  and  knew 
what  was  expected  of  her.  Another  good  thing  was 
that  the  teacher  did  not  talk  too  much. 

Notwithstanding  all  these  good  things  it  was  not 
teaching.  Not  ti  single  question  was  asked  by  the 
teacher,  nor  by  a  pupil,  which  would  demand  a  statement 
showing  what  was  in  the  minds  of  the  pupils.  The 
pupils  may  have  known  what  the  words  of  the  text 
meant,  or  they  ma\  not.  The  teacher  ma}-  have  been  well 
acquainted  with  the  facts  stated  in  the  text,  but  there 
was  nothing  in  his  teaching  which  indicated  tliat  he  was. 
Anv  person  who  could  read  might  have  been  just  as 
good  a  teacher  as  he  was.  Tt  is  possible  that  the  pupils 
derived  some  value  from  this  recitation,  but  if  they 
did.  it  was  not  the  fauU  (if  ihe  teacher.  Tt  is  a  travesty 
iipou  ihe  business  lo  call  such  a  process  teaching.  Tt 
is  difficult  \n  CMiiceixc  n  move  ^(uix-fying  process,  yet 
perhaps  all   of  us  have  known   teachers   who  demanded 


How  'lo  s'l  i'ii\'  20.^ 

llii->  kind  ul  >lii(ly,  and  when  the  jmpil  lia>  xaricd  t'nini 
llic  >tatenient  of  ilic  U'xl.  piuilanti)  (.xclainicd.  "Well, 
well,  if  }on  can  inij)rove  upon  ihc  words  of  the  book 
do  so;  but  1  do  not  think  you  can." 

//7/_v  Lear  mug  by  Heart  is  Popular. — Learning  b_\- 
heart  is  not  necessarily  learning.  The  words  of  an 
author  do  not  convey  any  meaning  until  they  have  been 
translated  into  the  thought  and  the  words  of  the  learner. 
The  process  of  committing  the  text  to  memory  so  closely 
simulates  the  process  of  learning  that  many  teachers 
are  deceived  b\-  the  resemblance. 

JJliat  Ought  to  be  Couniiittcd  to  Meiiiorv. — There 
are  some  things  that  ought  to  be  committed  to  memory. 
The  multiplication  table  ought  to  be  committed  to  mem- 
ory.— after  it  has  been  learned,  not  before.  There  will 
be  so  many  occasions  to  use  the  niultiplication  table 
that  it  is  worth  while  to  commit  it  to  memorv  so  that 
it  may  be  at  hand  ready  to  use  when  occasion  demands  it. 
The  statement  that  it  ought  to  be  committed  to  memory 
after  it  has  been  learned  implies  the  distinction  we  have 
already  drawn  lietwecn  learning  and  committing  to 
memory.  A  thine  may  be  committed  to  memory  without 
learning  it,  and  a  thing  ma}-  be  learned  without  commit- 
ting it  to  memory. 

Other  Thiugs  to  he  Meinori::ed. — .Similarly,  the  alpha- 
l)Ct,  the  tables  of  denominate  numbers,  some  of  the  rules 
of  grammar,  lists  of  exceptions  to  the  rules,  the  rules 
for  i)rominciation,  rules  for  siielling.  shonld  be  commit- 
ted to  memorv.  because  the\-  arc  to  be  u<cd  so  frcfiucnllv 


204  I'RIXCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

that  it  is  a  saving  of  time  and  economy  of  effort  to  learn 
them  thoroughly  by  heart  once  for  all.  Some  definitions, 
theorems  of  geometry,  the  Constitution  of  the  United 
States,  as  the  supreme  law  of  the  land,  and  such  things 
as  these  are  proper  subjects  for  memorizing,  because  the 
expression  is  made  in  very,  carefully  selected  language 
and  there  is  permissible  no  variation  in  meaning,  such 
as  variation  in  language  implies.  So  selections  of  poetry 
and  choice  selections  of  other  literature  are  to  be  com- 
mitted to  memory,  because  the  form  in  which  the  thought 
is  expressed  is  frequently  the  most  important  thing 
about  it.  The  thought  might  be  expressed  in  some  other 
way,  but  then  it  might  not  be  worth  committing  to 
memory. 

A  Better  Process  of  Renicinhcring. — But  a  lesson  may 
be  remembered  in  another  way.  Instead  of  remembering 
the  words  of  the  text,  the  learner  may  remember  the 
ideas,  translating  them  into  his  own  thought  and  putting 
tb.em  into  his  own  words.  This  is  very  much  better 
than  learning  the  words  of  the  book ;  for  the  teacher  is 
enabled  to  judge  from  the  words  that  the  pupil  employs 
in  expressing  the  thought  whether  the  thought  he  has 
obtained  is  adequate  or  not. 

Illustration  of  Adequate  Interpretation. — A  teacher 
in  a  city  was  teaching  a  class  of  small  boys  to  read.  The 
boys  were  such  as  might  properly  be  designated  "street 
Arabs."  and  they  talked  the  language  of  the  street  with 
all  its  modern  improvements.  Tlie  lesson  was  as  follows: 
"See  the  cow.  Is  not  the  cow^  pretty?  Can  the  cow  nm? 


now  TO  STUDY  205 

\  es,  the  cow  can  run.  Can  the  cow  run  as  fast  as  the 
horse?  No,  the  cow  cannot  run  as  fast  as  the  horse."' 
The  teacher  was  a  good  teacher,  and  she  desired  to  know 
whether  the  boys  had  obtained  an  adequate  conception 
from  what  they  had  read.  She  inquired :  "Who  can  tell 
me  this  story  in  your  own  way?"  Several  thought  they 
could,  and  one  boy  was  designated  to  tell  the  story.  He 
did  it  as  follows:  "Git  onto  de  cow.  Aint  she  a  beaut? 
Kin  de  cow  git  a  gait  on  her?  Sure.  Kin  the  cow 
hump  herself  wit  de  horse?  Nit.  De  cow  ain't  in  it  wid 
de  horse."  It  was  evident  that  the  thought  was  adequate. 
Such  an  interpretation  is  to  be  commended.  Without  it. 
it  would  be  impossible  for  the  teacher  to  know  just  what 
thoughts  are  awakened  in  the  minds  of  the  children  by 
the  words  of  the  book. 

Topical  Analysis. — Some  devices  for  reading  and  re- 
membering the  ideas  set  forth  in  the  lesson  have  been 
found  helpful,  and  may  be  worthy  of  our  consideration. 
One  device  is  that  of  making  a  topical  analysis  of  the 
lesson.  In  some  books  there  is  a  topical  analysis  printed 
in  the  margin  of  the  page.  Each  paragraph  has  some 
central  thought  whose  elaboration  constitutes  the  para- 
graph itself.  The  searching  out  of  the  central  thought 
and  stating  it  in  a  very  brief  manner  is  a  satisfactory 
means  of  studying  a  lesson.  Sometimes  a  diagram  show- 
ing the  relation  of  these  central  thoughts  to  each  other 
will  enable  a  whole  book  to  be  rcinembered  at  a  single 
reading. 

Reproduction   n;    /FnV/;;^.— Reproduction   in   writing 


206  PRIXCJrLES   OF    TKAClilNG 

is  another  method  of  study.  A  person  may  take  up  a 
book  and  read  a  page  or  chapter  or  section — some  unit 
of  the  subject — and  then  undertake  to  reproduce  the 
thought  as  completely  as  possible  in  writing.  It  will 
be  found  that  there  is  a  great  temptation  to  refer  to  the 
book  while  writing,  to  see  what  really  is  said  about  the 
matter  under  consideration,  but  which  has  not  been 
clearly  comprehended,  but  such  a  temptation  needs  to  be 
resisted.  Then  the  next  ])aragraph  or  section  is  read 
and  reproduced  in  the  same  way.  Not  only  will  the 
lesson  or  the  book  be  learned  very  thoroughly  in  this 
way,  but  a  great  amount  of  skill  in  studying  will  soon 
be  acquired. 

Remembering  Not  the  Completion  of  Study. — When 
a  pupil  has  learned  the  ideas  so  that  he  is  able  to  repro- 
duce them,  the  teacher  is  usually  satisfied  with  the  lesson, 
and  tb.inks  his  whole  duty  done.  Such  is  not  the  case. 
The  real  study  of  the  lesson  is  just  ready  to  begin.  '  Tlie 
ideas  tliat  have  been  read  and  remembered  are  only  the 
raw'  material  for  the  real  study  of  the  lesson  which  is 
yet  to  come. 

Perceiz'iiig  Relations. — The  third  process  of  study  is 
expressed  by  saying  that  we  think  about  it.  The  ideas 
that  are  read  and  remembered  are  held  in  the  mind  and 
tlie  relations  between  them  are  to  be  discovered  by  the 
pupils.  The  relations  between  tlie  ideas  in  today's  lesson 
and  those  in  yesterday's  lesson  need  to  be  searched  for. 
Thinking  about  it  means  the  perception  of  relations,  and 
this  constitutes  the  third  element  in  studv.     Not  onlv 


IUjW  TU  STLIA'  207 

are  the  relations  existini;-  between  the  ideas  of  yester- 
day's lesson  and  those  of  today's  lesson  to  be  discovered, 
but  the  relations  between  the  different  ideas  in  today's 
lesson  are  to  be  seen.  Tlien,  too.  the  relations  between 
the  ideas  in  today's  lesson  and  the  ideas  in  any  other 
lesson  are  to  be  searched  for  and  discovered.  It  would 
be  wrong  for  the  teacher  to  point  out  these  relations, 
for  this  is  the  place  in  which  the  activity  of  the  pupil 
can  be  most  profitable.  The  business  of  the  teacher  is  to 
detain  the  attention  of  the  pupils  upon  the  matter  in  hand 
until  they  come  to  see  the  relations  for  themselves.  His 
business  is  to  sugorest,  to  urge,  to  hold  the  attention  to  the 
matter  in  hand  until  the  relations  make  themselves  mani- 
fest. It  is  not  a  time  for  hurry  nor  for  stirring  up  emo- 
tion other  than  such  as  is  necessarily  an  accompaniment 
of  the  greatest  possible  production  of  nervous  energy. 
Time  is  necessary,  but  talk  Ijy  the  teacher  is  quite  unnec- 
essary. Explanation  in  such  a  case  is  out  of  order. 
Explanation  means  the  pointing  out  of  relations,  and 
that  is  not  the  business  of  the  teacher  when  the  children 
are  studying  the  lesson.  Sometimes  this  keeping  still  is 
the  most  difficult,  as  it  is  the  most  important  part  of  the 
teacher's  work. 

Assignment  Without  Recitation. — Teachers  are  some- 
times criticized  for  assigning  a  lesson  which  is  not 
called  for  in  recitation.  This  means  tliat  they  have 
assigned  a  lesson  which  is  to  be  read  and  remembered, 
and  then  have  failed  to  call  for  a  reproduction  of  those 
ideas  that  have  been  learned.     If  the  class  is  so  faithful 


i08  PRIXCirLES  01^   TliACIIIXG 

that  the  teacher  feels  confident  that  they  have  studied, 
read,  and  remembered  the  ideas,  then  he  is  justified  in 
not  calhng  for  their  reproduction,  but  may  proceed  at 
once  to  the  utiHzation  of  the  ideas  as  materials  for  the 
lesson.  He  may  call  for  a  statement  of  the  relations  ex- 
isting between  the  ideas,  rather  than  for  the  reproduction 
of  the  ideas  themselves.  It  is  a  better  test  of  the  dili- 
gence of  the  pupil,  and  altogether  a  higher  form  of 
teaching,  since  it  is  impossible  for  the  pupil  to  show 
forth  the  relation  unless  the  ideas  are  at  hand. 

Perceiving  Relations  a  Study  Lesson. — This  plan  of 
procedure  makes  of  the  lesson  a  study  lesson.  It  is 
the  most  important  and  the  most  valuable  kind  of  lesson, 
and  is  the  kind  in  which  the  assistance  of  the  teacher  in 
training  the  children  how  to  study  is  the  most  neces- 
sary and  the  most  profitable.  The  kind  of  lesson  in  wdiich 
the  ideas  are  merely  reproduced  is  a  testing  lesson,  and 
is  not  nearly  so  important. 

The  Study  of  Things. — Besides  the  study  of  a  book 
we  need  to  study  things.  We  interpret  the  ideas  that  we 
read  in  a  book  only  by  means  of  the  ideas  which  we 
have  already  obtained  by  experience  with  things.  The 
studv  of  things  gives  us  first  hand  knowledge  that  lies 
at  the  basis  of  all  other  kinds.  In  this  sense  it  must  be 
considered  the  most  important,  even  though  not  the 
greatest  in  amount.  The  study  of  books  can  give  us 
only  second  hand  information.  There  is  a  great  diflfer- 
ence  between  first  hand  and  second  hand  knowledge. 
When  we  study  a  thing,  we  get  an  idea  of  that  thing. 


now  TO  STUDY  209 

When  we  study  a  book  about  a  thinj^,  we  get  an  idea 
of  another  person's  idea  of  the  thing.  When  instead  of 
getting  second  hand  information  we  get  it  at  third  or 
fourth  hand,  the  probabihty  that  our  ideas  approximate 
the  real  thing  is  very  small. 

First  Process — Abstraction. — In  the  study  of  a  thing 
we  can  discover  the  same  elements  which  we  observed  in 
the  study  of  a  book.  Suppose  that  we  are  studying  a 
machine,  a  chemical  process,  a  flower,  or  a  crawfish. 
The  first  thing  we  do  is  to  look  at  the  thing  as  a  whole, 
and  this  corresponds  to  the  reading  of  the  book  lesson. 
Then  we  analyze  the  thing  into  its  parts.  Thus  if  our 
object  is  a  grasshopper,  we  see  that  it  is  composed  of 
three  body  divisions,  head,  thorax  and  abdomen.  Apply- 
ing a  name  to  each  of  these  parts  makes  our  recognition 
of  them  more  definite,  although  the  name  is  not  at  all 
necessary  to  our  analysis.  Then  we  turn  our  attention 
to  one  of  these  parts,  for  example  the  head,  to  the  ex- 
clusion, for  the  time  being,  of  all  other  parts.  Next  we 
examine  the  parts  of  the  head.  We  see  in  it  the  com- 
pound eyes,  the  antennae,  and  the  mouth  parts.  We 
limit  our  observation  for  the  instant  to  one  of  these 
organs,  neglecting  all  other  parts.  We  count  the  seg- 
ments of  the  antennae,  not  so  mucli  to  discover  how 
many  segments  there  are,  although  this  fact  is  ascer- 
tained by  counting,  but  because  in  the  process  of  count- 
ing we  fix  our  attention  for  an  instant  upon  one  par- 
ticular segment  to  the  exclusion  of  all  other  segments, 
or  of  all  other  parts  of  the  body.    This  process  by  means 


210  I'JUA'Cll'LKS   UF    TEACHING 

of  which  \\c  examine  each  ])art  uf  ihc  tiling  we  are 
studying  to  tiic  exclusion  uf  all  other  parts  is  called  the 
process  of  abstraction. 

Second  Process — /inalysis. — At  the  same  time  that  the 
process  of  abstraction  is  going  on,  another  |)rocess  which 
is  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from  it  is  in  progress.  We 
look  not  mei'ely  at  the  part  itself,  but  we  examine  the 
relation  that  the  part  we  are  studying  bears  to  the  other 
parts.  We  see  how  it  is  like  and  how  it  differs  from  the 
other  parts.  This  process  of  seeing  the  thing  in  its 
relations  is  the  process  of  analysis.  Abstraction  and 
analysis  are  fundamental  processes  in  the  study  of  a 
thing,  and  we  have  found  that  they  arc  equally  impor- 
tant in  tlie  study  of  a  book  lesson.  Abstraction  and 
analysis  correspond  to  the  reading  of  the  book  lesson. 
Sometimes  we  delineate  the  object  seen  by  drawing,  and 
this  is  a  device,  or  method  of  study,  which  demands  that 
we  shall  examine  the  thincr  more  minutelv  than  we  other- 
wise  would  do.  We  cannot  fail  to  examine  the  thing 
that  is  drawn,  while  we  might  fail  to  examine  some 
portion  of  it  if  we  did  not  draw. 

Third  Process — Pcrcef'fioii  of  Rclatio)is — Differences 
and  Reseiiiblaiices. — Even  yet  we  have  not  completed  our 
study  of  a  thing.  The  third  element  in  stud\-  has  not  been 
accounted  for.  T,et  us  suppose  that  we  have  studied  a 
bumblebee,  a  housefly,  a  butterfly,  a  squash  bug,  a  dragon- 
fly, and  a  beetle.  We  shall  never  be  able  to  learn  all  that 
we  ought  to  know  about  a  grasshopper  by  studying  the 
insect  itself.     When  we  have  studied  some  other  insects 


HOW  TO  STUDY  211 

\vc  can  proceed  to  discover  the  relations  that  the  grass- 
hopper holds  to  them.  We  ohserve  the  resenihlances  and 
llie  (htTercnces  anioni;  aU  lhc>c  in^ccl^.  We  observe  that 
they  arc  all  alike  in  havini;-  two  pair>  of  wings,  segmented 
abdomen,  breathing  by  spiracle.-,  and  we  ennmerale  man\ 
other  resemblances.  Similarlx  we  ])oini  ont  the  ditTer- 
ences  that  exist  among  the  in.-ects  stndied  in  respect  to 
their  wings.  month-])arts.  and  metamorphosis. 

This  is  the  third  step  in  the  stndy  of  a  thing,  and. 
as  it  is  the  most  important  element  in  the  stndy  of  a  book 
lesson,  it  is  really  the  most  important  step  here.  It  dis- 
closes more  abont  the  thing  than  dues  any  other  step  in 
,-tndv.  There  is  the  same  necessity  for  the  teacher's 
assistance,  and  for  the  teacher's  self-repression  to  avoid 
pointing  ont  the  relations,  that  we  find  in  the  stndy  of 
a  book  lesson. 

E.vain/'lc  of  a  Rcv^wccd. — Bnt  it  is  not  necessary  that 
we  shall  discover  resemblances  and  differences  between 
diff'erent  tiling-  in  order  to  exemplify  this  third  element 
of  stndy.  The  thing  manifests  relations  within  itself, 
and  is  its  own  center  of  correlation.  So  simple  a  thing 
as  a  ragweed  or  a  common  flower  of  any  kind,  or  a  frog 
or  a  grasshopper  shows  forth  relations  which  mnst  be 
l^erceived  before  we  can  say  that  we  have  any  adequate 
knowledge  of  the  thing  itself. 

Correlated  Characters. — Let  us  look  at  a  ragweed  as 
its  own  center  of  correlation,  and  see  the  relations  that  it 
manifests.  The  spikes  of  a  ragweed  are  terminal,  there- 
fore it  nni-t  l)e  branching  in  order  Ihat  there  may  be  as 


212  PRINCIPLES   Ui"    TKACIIIXG 

many  terminal  buds  as  possible.  The  branching  habit 
enables  the  ragweed  to  produce  a  large  number  of  seeds 
and  so  propagates  the  species  in  large  number.--.  It  in- 
sures a  sufficient  number  of  j^rogeny  to  continue  the  race. 
But  a  densely  branching  plant  will  shade  the  interior 
branches,  unless  as  in  the  case  of  the  ragweed  the  leaves 
are  much  cut  and  ragged.  The  reproductive  organs  are 
separated  from  each  other,  the  stamens  borne  in  one 
f]ower,  and  the  pistils  in  another.  The  pistillate  flowers 
arc  beiow  the  staminate.  and  this  favors  the  reception 
of  pollen  that  may  be  dropped  from  the  staminate  flowers 
above.  The  pistillate  flowers  are  turned  upward,  thus 
favoi-ing  the  reception  of  the  pollen,  and  the  stigmas 
are  bearded,  thus  further  assuring  that  the  pollen  grains 
will  stick  until  fertilization  occurs.  The  staminate  flowers 
are  clustered  ;  and  the  cluster  is  surrounded  by  an  in- 
volcure  which  is  entire,  and  which  serves  as  a  protection 
for  the  pendulous  heads  of  staminate  flowers.  The 
staminate  heads  are  turned  downwards,  and  when  the 
pollen  is  discharged  it  is  naturally  directed  toward  the 
pistillate  flowers.  The  pollen  is  produced  in  large  quanti- 
ties ;  as  manv  as  a  billion  pollen  grains  have  been  estima- 
ted in  one  plant,  and  this  is  about  half  a  million  times 
as  manv  pollen  grains  as  there  are  seeds  produced  b}  the 
same  plant.  Add  to  this  the  fact  that  the  ragweed  is 
protected  from  herbivorous  animals  by  its  bitter  taste, 
and  we  have  fourteen  or  fifteen  dififerent  characters  con- 
tributing to  the  one  definite  eft'ect  of  insuring  that  there 
shall  be  a  continuation  of  the  species. 


iloW  TO  STUDY  213 

We  shall  never  know  the  ragweed,  nor  any  other 
thing,  until  we  liave  ])erceive(l  the  relations  existing  in 
the  thing  itself.  This  is  the  study  that  the  ])U])il  must 
do  for  himself.  It  is  wrong  for  the  teacher  to  point 
out  these  relations  ;  for  this  takes  away  the  opportunity 
for  self-directed  activity  on  the  part  of  the  pupil.  The 
business  of  the  teacher  is  to  know  and  to  recognize  the 
relations  that  are  significant,  and  to  hold  the  attention  of 
the  pupil  to  the  matter  in  hand  until  the  relations  which 
he  knows  to  be  significant  are  seen. 

Study  of  Pkfiircs. — The  third  object  of  study  which 
we  wish  to  consider  is  pictures.  Pictures  are  of  great 
importance  in  the  books  of  the  present  day.  The  ex- 
cellence and  cheapness  of  the  new  methods  of  repro- 
ducing pictures  makes  it  possible  to  illustrate  nearly  all 
books.  Publishers  depend  largely  upon  pictures  in  a  book 
to  make  it  sell.  The  authors  of  one  series  of  geogra- 
phies now  before  the  public  paid  thirty  thousand  dollars 
to  secure  the  pictures  that  are  reproduced  in  those  books. 
One  publishing  house  gave  a  painter  a  thousand  dollars 
to  paint  ten  pictures  of  scenes  and  events  in  American 
history,  in  order  that  it  might  reproduce  them  in  a 
school  history  of  the  L'nited  States. 

r)Ut  the  pictures  in  a  book  are  frequently  of  little 
service  to  the  pupil  or  to  the  teacher,  largely  because  the 
teacher  does  not  know  how  to  study  them  nor  how  to 
teach  the  children  to  study  them.  A  person  who  wislies 
to  specialize  in  the  study  of  pictures  will  make  a  reputa- 
tion as  wide  as  the  continent. 


214  rkliNCll'LKS   Ul'    TllACIllNG 

/•7/'.s7  Process. —  III  llie  sliidy  of  jm-turcs  \vc  may  dis- 
cover the  sainc  three  eleiiienls  llial  we  liave  found  to  be- 
long' to  the  stiitl}  of  a  hook  lesson  and  to  the  study  of  an 
object.  The  first  thing  to  do  is  to  look  at  the  picture 
as  a  whole.  We  should  call  it  In  a  name  if  possible, 
although  the  name  is  not  an  essential  part  of  the  picture. 
This  looking"  at  the  picture  as  a  whole  corresponds  to 
the  reading  of  the  lesson.  After  the  picture  has  been 
seen  as  a  whole,  the  next  step  is  to  analyze  it  and  look 
at  the  different  parts,  or  to  see  the  elements  that  enter 
into  its  composition.  If  this  examination  of  the  picture 
were  to  be  written  out,  it  would  constitute  a  description 
of  the  picture. 

Difference  Beticeeii  Deserll^fioii  and  Interpretation. — 
It  is  rather  a  diflficult  process  to  get  children  to  make  a 
good  description  of  a  pictmx.  and  to  see  things  just  as 
they  arc,  instead  of  seeing  them  as  they  think  they  ought 
to  be.  It  is  very  dif^cult  to  state  a  fact  instead  of  an 
interpretation  of  the  fact.  Teachers  of  English  who  use 
pictures  as  subjects  for  exercises  in  composition  realize 
tlie  strong  tendency  to  write  into  a  picture  what  is  not 
there  rather  than  to  describe  exactly  what  the  picture 
shows.  The  description  of  a  picture  involves  a  state- 
ment ot  the  relation  of  the  different  elements  of  a  picture 
to  each  other,  but  it  does  not  involve  an  interpretation  of 
what  the  pictm^e  expresses. 

TJurd  Process — 1  nterj^retation. — The  third  clement  in 
the  study  of  a  picture  consists  of  its  interpretation.  It 
involves  not  merely  a  statement  <^f  the  relations  of  the 


lUJW    TV  STUDY  -15 

dilYcrciil  cloiiiciils  oi  llie  picture  to  each  other,  but  it 
(leinandb  that  we  shall  draw  inferences  from  what  we  see 
concerning-  that  which  we  do  not  see.  Certain  elements 
in  any  picture  are  in  harmony  with  certain  other  situa- 
tions which  we  cannot  see,  and  conversely  certain  ele- 
ments in  the  picture  are  out  of  harmon\-  with  other 
elements  which  we  might  discover  in  another  jncture. 
We  should  make  any  legitimate  inference  that  the  picture 
allows. 

DriKciiii^  InfcrciKCS. — It  is  our  lousiness  in  studying 
a  picture  to  understand  the  story  which  the  picture  tells. 
The  story  in  a  picture  is  but  a  continuation  of  the  per- 
ception of  relations  and  of  inferences  which  may  legiti- 
mately be  drawn.  Some  pictures,  and  these  are  the  most 
numerous  in  our  books,  tell  no  story,  but  show  forth  many 
harmonious  relations.  They  are  packed  w  ith  information. 
We  get  knowledge  from  them  :  hut  according  to  mu- 
previous  statement,  all  of  our  knowledge  takes  the  form 
of  the  perception  of  relations.  The  study  of  a  picture, 
then,  is  a  thinking  process,  and  demands  tliat  we  perceive 
relations.  Pictures  that  illustrate  a  piece  of  literature  or 
a  narration  of  events  tell  a  story.  Certain  antecedent 
circumstances  and  conditions  may  lcgitimatcl\-  be  in- 
ferred from  the  jiictorial  situation.  I^lu-  (k-cription  of 
the  antecedent  circumstances  and  the  further  snl)^e(|uent 
circumstances  that  would  be  in  ronforniily  (o  the  situa- 
tion represented  b\  llie  pictiu'e  constitutes  its  stor\-.  \  ery 
much  mav  be  done  in  training  children  to  studx  pictures 
and  to  see  in  them  more  than  thev  do  see.     At  present. 


216  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

it  is  to  be  feared  that  few  children  derive  the  benefit 
that  they  might  from  the  illustrations  in  books.  The 
illustrations  may  be  made  a  hundred  times  as  serviceable 
as  they  are  now. 

Impoitaiicc  of  Studying  Pictures. — When  children 
have  learned  to  study  pictures,  teachers  have  a  means 
of  improving  their  teaching  very  much.  As  admirably 
as  text-books  are  illustrated,  a  teacher  will  find  that  a 
library  of  pictures,  which  may  be  cut  out  of  magazines 
and  other  printed  matter,  adds  much  to  the  effectiveness 
of  his  teaching.  Such  pictures,  elegant  illustrations  of 
almost  every  kind  of  subject  may  be  had  for  the  trouble 
of  preserving  them.  They  may  be  mounted  on  manila 
paper  or  cardboard,  and  will  constitute  a  valuable  library 
of  reference.  Besides  this,  it  is  possible  for  every 
teacher  to  make  use  of  some  form  of  projection  appara- 
tus which  will  contribute  to  the  effectiveness  of  his  teach- 
ing. Sunlight  is  the  best  and  the  cheapest  source  of 
illumination,  and  a  projection  apparatus  using  sunlight 
may  be  constructed  for  a  very  small  sum  of  money.  The 
effectivenesss  of  teaching  by  pictures,  however,  depends 
largely  upon  the  ability  that  the  children  have  acquired 
to  study  pictures,  and  this  fact  emphasizes  the  importance 
of  teaching  children  how  to  study  them. 

Synopsis 

1.  Study  is  a  self-directed  activity  on  the  part  of 
the  pupil  that  results  in  knowledge  and  in  mental  dis- 
cipline. 


HOW  TO  siuuv  217 

2.  Study  is  not  ctaifmcd  lu  books,  bul  includes 
objects  and  pictures. 

3.  There  are  three  processes  involved  in  the  study 
of  a  book-lesson,  a  thing  or  a  picture;  first,  an  examina- 
tion of  tlie  subject  of  study  as  a  whole;  second,  an 
analysis  of  the  parts  which  compose  it ;  third,  the  per- 
ception of  the  relations  existing  between  the  parts  of  the 
thing,  or  between  the  thing  studied,  and  other  things 
alreadv  known. 


CHAPTER  Xlll. 

What  Ti:.\ciiixg   Is. 

Definition  of  Teaching. — We  have  learned  that  study 
is  the  self-direeted  activity  of  the  child,  and  similarly 
vve  may  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  teaching  is  an 
activity  of  the  teacher.  W'c  have  looked  at  school 
work  from  the  standpoint  of  the  learner,  now  we  con- 
sider it  from  the  standpoint  of  the  teacher.  The  ac- 
tivity of  the  teacher  in  the  teaching  process  is  designed 
to  produce  an  effect  upon  the  mind  of  the  child.  \\'c 
may  put  these  elements  into  the  form  of  a  definition 
and  say  that  teaching  is  the  activity  on  the  ])art  of  the 
teacher  that  produces  an  effect  upon  the  mind  of  the 
child. 

Teaching  and  Telling. — We  ought  to  discriminate  be- 
tween teaching  and  telling.  Telling  is  an  activity  of 
the  teacher,  and  it  is.  or  may  be,  intended  to  produce 
an  effect  upon  the  mind  of  the  child ;  but  unless  it 
does  do  so,  it  is  not  teaching.  We  may  tell  a  large 
number  of  pupils  how  to  make  a  loaf  of  bread,  but 
when  we  have  done  so  wc  have  not  taught  them. 
Teachers  sometimes  express  surprise  that  children  do 
not  know  what  they  ought.  The  teacher  sometimes 
says   that   "They  ought  to  know   that.     T    told   them 

218 


WHAT  TF.Aciiixr.    I-;  219 

three  or  four  liiius  la-t  ucc-k."  T'.ut  tellin.i^  is  not 
teachin.^-.  Tellint,''  may  produce-  an  effect  upon  the 
minds  of  the  chihh-en.  or  it  may  not.  In  order  to 
leach  a  class  how  to  make  a  loaf  of  bread,  the  teacher 
must  do  something-  which  will  cause  the  minds  of  the 
children  to  travel  over  the  same  mental  path  that  the 
teacher's  mind  traveled  over  when  he  was  telling-  them. 
In  order  to  know  that  their  minds  are  traveling  over 
the  same  mental  path,  there  must  be  an  expression  by 
the  pupils.  This  is  perhaps  the  chief  external  dif- 
ference between  teaching  and  telling.  Telling  does 
not  demand  an  expression  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 
Teaching  makes  an  imperative  demand  that  the  ideas 
shall  be  expressed. 

Modifying  Misapprehension. — Different  pupils  will 
obtain  different  understandings  of  what  has  been  told 
them,  because  they  will  join  the  things  that  are  told 
to  different  apperceiving  masses.  Widely  different 
notions  of  anything  said  or  read  will  be  obtained  by 
dift'erent  children  in  this  way.  It  is  evident  that  not 
all  of  the  varying  ideas  will  correspond  to  those  which 
the  teacher  intends  them  to  get.  Hence  the  teacher 
must  do  som.ething  to  modify  the  varying  ideas  of 
each  pupil  so  that,  notwithstanding  their  different  ap 
perceiving-  masses,  all  pupils  shall  obtain  the  same  idea 
of  the  thing  taught.  The  pupils  must  repeat  what 
the  teacher  has  said.  Thev  must  be  able  to  state  the 
ingredients  that  enter  into  the  composition  of  a  loaf 
of  bread  in  their  proper  proportion,  the  order  in  which 


220  I'kl.WII'r.F.S  UF   TEACHING 

they  are  introduced  the  methods  of  mixing,  the  time 
and  the  temperature  of  baking.  In  a  class  of  any 
large  number,  some  of  the  pupils  will  misapprehend 
some  of  these  things,  and  the  teacher  must  correct  the 
mistaken  impressions.  Only  when  the  pupils  have 
had  their  misapprehensions  corrected,  are  able  to  lay 
the  proper  emphasis  upon  the  different  processes,  and 
can  tell  the  story  as  clearly  as  did  the  teacher,  are  we 
able  to  say  that  the  class  has  been  taught. 

Unity  of  Teacher  and  Pupil. — The  teacher  knows 
the  mental  path  along  which  he  causes  the  pupil  to 
travel,  because  he  has  himself  traveled  over  the  same 
path  before.  He  knows  all  the  difficulties  and  all  the 
places  where  the  train  of  thought  may  be  switched 
oft'.  It  is  the  teacher's  duty  to  keep  his  mind  in  con- 
tact with  the  mind  of  the  pupil  all  the  time  and  to 
know  where  the  child  is  mentally  located  at  any  in- 
stant ;  to  oft'er  suggestions  and  to  furnish  incentives 
that  will  keep  the  mind  of  the  pupil  in  the  proper 
pathway  at  all  times. 

The  most  important  and  the  most  difficult  thing  is 
to  know  where  the  child  is  mentally  located.  The 
teacher  and  the  pupil  must  be  thinking  the  same  thing 
at  the  same  time.  Their  minds  are  in  contact  with 
each  other,  but  there  is  a  difference  between  the  think- 
ing of  the  teacher  and  that  of  the  pupil.  The  pupil 
thinks  the  thing,  and  the  teacher  thinks  the 
thought  of  the  pupil.  The  imformulated  and  un- 
expressed   thought     of     the     teacher     at     any     instant 


WHAT    TKACUING    IS  221 

is  "Jusi  whal  i>  iIk-  pupil  ihinknii;"  at  ihis  present 
inoincnt?  Does  the  iliouglit  ol'  ilie  pupil  at  the  pres- 
ent instant  agree  witli  what  1  know  lie  ought  to  be 
thinking:" 

Necessity  for  Expression. — Since  the  pupil  and  the 
teacher  are  to  think  the  same  thoughts  at  the  same 
time,  and  since  the  teacher  must  know  at  anv  instant 
what  the  pupil  is  thinking,  it  is  evident  that  there 
can  be  no  ver}^  successful  teaching  unless  there  is  con- 
stant expression  by  the  pupil  all  the  time  that  the 
teaching  process  is  going  on.  Expression  has  two 
eflfects:  In  the  first  place,  it  enables  the  teacher  to 
know  where  the  pupil  is  mentally  located  at  any  time ; 
and  in  the  second  place,  it  serves  as  an  intensifier  of 
the  pupil's  thought,  rendering  it  more  definite  and 
clear. 

Forms  of  Expression. — Expression  may  take  the  form 
of  words,  as  in  the  case  of  oral  recitation,  but  it  is 
not  limited  to  this.  It  may  take  the  form  of  drawing, 
as  when  a  teacher  wishes  to  know  the  process  of  tlie 
pupil  in  thinking  the  Mississippi  river,  or  some  other 
geographical  feature.  Expression  may  take  the  form 
of  writing  on  the  blackboard,  as  in  reproducing  the 
thought  of  a  reading  lesson,  writing  out  the  demon- 
stration in  geometry,  the  analysis  of  a  sentence  in 
grammar,  or  making  a  diagram  of  it.  The  written 
solution  of  a  problem  in  arithmetic  or  algebra ;  the 
construction  of  a  diagram  in  geometry ;  the  drawing 
of  a  figure  to  show  the  relation  of  its  diflPerent  parts  :-t- 


222 


I'KIXCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 


any  of  these  things  may  constitute  a  form  of  expres- 
sion which  is  necessary  for  teaching.  So,  too,  the 
drawing  ilhistrative  of  an  incident  in  the  reading  of 
a  story  is  an  adequate  form  of  expression  for  the 
purpose  that  ex]n'cssion  is  employed  in  teaching. 
Sometimes  the  expression  may  take  the  form  of  fold- 
ing papers,  as  in  a  primary  class,  following  the  direc- 
tions of  a  teacher  in  exercises  intended  to  develop 
the  number  concept.  Other  forms  of  constructive 
work,  such  as  the  use  of  a  sand  table  or  a  molding 
board,  the  cutting  of  cardl)oard.  sewing,  weaving, 
building  a  tent,  or  constructing  articles  with  wood 
may  sometimes  be  employed  to  enable  the  teacher  to 
know  the  mental  location  of  the  pupil. 

Purpose  of  Oral  Reading. — Oral  reading  is  such  an 
important  form  of  expression  that  the  discussion  of 
it  may  well  stand  by  itself.  The  purpose  of  oral  read- 
ing is  not  merely  to  obtain  the  thought.  If  we  ctudd 
be  certain  that  the  \n\\)\\  obtains  an  adequate  thought 
from  the  selection  that  he  is  assigned  to  read,  there 
might  be  little  value  in  oral  reading.  But  how  shall 
we  cause  the  pupil  in  reading  to  obtain  an  adequate 
thought,  and  how  shall  we  know  that  he  has  ob- 
tained  it? 

Oral  reading  has  little  value  except  as  a  means  of 
manifesting  to  the  teacher  the  adequacy  of  the  thought 
which  the  pupil  has  obtained  from  the  printed  page. 
The  thought  is  expressed  quite  as  much  by  the  em- 
phasis and  inflection   of  the  voice  as   it  is  hy  words. 


WHAT    TllACHIXi;    IS  223 

Exactly  oppdsite  and  oontradicli  ir\'  meanings  may  1><." 
expressed  hy  var\  ing-  emphasis  in  readins;'  snch  sen- 
tences as  "They  will  plant  corn,  if  it  dees  not  rain." 
"lie  will  tell  the  trnth.  if  he  is  not  a  gentleman." 

Imitative  Expression. — It  is  evident,  too,  that  the  form 
of  expression  may  he  imitated  wiihonl  an  adequate 
thought  being  secured.  Hence  arises  the  danger  from 
asking  pupils  to  read  a  sentence  as  a  teacher  reads  it. 
Notwithstanding  this  danger,  sometimes  the  only  way 
to  enable  a  child  to  acquire  the  thought  that  is  ade- 
quate is  to  read  it  in  such  a  way  that  the  pupil  will 
recognize  the  thought  which  the  teacher's  reading  ex- 
presses. Here,  then,  are  the  two  dangers  between 
which  the  teacher  must  choose.  lie  must  choose  be- 
tween the  danger  of  inadequate  thought,  and  of  sense- 
less imitation.  Anyone  wlio  has  studied  carefully  the 
matter  of  teaching  reading  must  know  how  hopeless 
it  is  to  try  to  ascertain  the  mental  location  of  pupils 
and  the  adequacy  of  the  thought  that  is  obtained  from 
the  printed  page,  l)y  question  and  answer,  or  by  re- 
production without  oral  reading.  Hence  arises  the  great 
importance  of  reading  aloud  as  a  means  of  testing  ade- 
quacy of  thought. 

Expression  as  an  Aid  to  Clearness. — Expression  con- 
duces to  clearness  of  thinking.  Perhaps  the  psychol- 
ogy of  expression  may  not  furnish  a  very  satisfactory 
explanation  of  it.  but  there  can  be  but  little  ([ucstion 
of  the  fact.  The  more  one  tries  to  express  his  thought, 
the  clearer  it  becomes.     It  is   scarcelv  an   exaggeration 


224  ruixcirLKS  of  teaching 

to  say  that  one  never  really  knows  a  thing  in  all  its 
length  and  breadth  and  fullness  until  he  has  taught  it 
to  a  class.  The  old  Latin  proverb  applies  here : 
"Men,  while  teaching,  learn." 

Psychology  of  Expression. — The  psychology  of  ex- 
pression may  be  stated  approximately  in  the  follow- 
ing manner:  Whenever  we  experience  a  mental  pro- 
cess, a  nervous  impulse  must  traverse  a  nervous  arc. 
The  nervous  arc  consists  of  three  parts,  a  nerve,  a 
brain  center,  or  combination  of  brain  cells,  and  another 
nerve.  It  is  the  transmission  through  the  brain  center, 
not  the  accumulation  of  the  nervous  impulse  in  it, 
that  is  the  concomitant  of  the  intellectual  process, 
hence  the  nervous  impulse  must  pass  out  of  the  brain 
center  into  something  else  or  there  will  be  no  intel- 
lectual process. 

Physiology  of  Expression. — This  something  else  is 
generally  a  nerve  leading  to  the  organs  of  expression. 
Such  a  nerve  of  expression  leads  usually  to  a  muscle: 
and  expression  commonly,  though  not  always,  takes 
the  form  of  muscular  movement.  The  nerve  of  ex- 
pression may,  how^ever,  lead  to  some  gland,  and  the 
expression  may  take  the  form  of  a  glandular  secretion, 
such  as  is  manifested  in  weeping.  Sometimes  the 
nerve  of  expression  may  lead  to  the  internal  organs., 
when  the  expression  does  not  appear  at  the  extremities 
nor  in  the  face.  At  any  rate,  wherever  a  nervous 
impulse  that  is  the  concomitant  of  the  intellectual  pro- 
cess may  go,  it  must  leave  the  brain  center. 


WHAT   TKACllIXC   IS  225 

TIk'  fact  tliai  there  arc  twu  ncr\cs  connectetl  with 
the  ncr\c)u>  arc  explains  what  is  meant  I)\  the  [phrase 
"Xo  impression  without  expression."'  t  he  statement 
implies  that  it  is  inipo>>ihle  for  ns  to  know  anything 
or  to  learn  anything;"  wiiliout  some  form  of  expression 
in  the  process  of  learning;',  and  liy  expression  in  this 
sense  is  nearly  always  meant  some  form  of  mtiscular 
movement. 

Is  All  Co)iscioiisiicss  Motor? — Some  psychologists  go 
even  farther  than  this.  They  will  tell  ns  that  all  con- 
sciousness is  motor.  By  consciousness  here  is  meant 
any  form  of  an  intellectual  process,  including  the  form 
that  makes  us  aware  of  our  own  mental  processes, 
llie  statement  of  this  may  be  understood  by  carrying 
our  physiological  explanation  a  little  farther.  When 
a  nervous  impulse  runs  out  of  the  ])rain  center  along 
a  nerve  of  expression  to  a  muscle,  the  muscle  con- 
tracts. The  contraction  of  the  muscle  starts  another 
nervous  impulse  in  the  muscle  nerve,  and  this  im- 
pulse flows  backward  to  a  muscle  center  in  the  brain. 
It  is  this  backward  flowing  impulse  which  is  be- 
lieved to  be  the  concomitant  of  the  consciousness  it- 
self. It  is  possible  that  this  explanation  is  altogether 
too  far  reaching,  and  lays  too  much  emphasis  upon  the 
motor  element  in  learning  and  in  education  in  general, 
but  it  is  employed  by  many  writers  upon  education  to 
justify  the  demand  for  a  much  greater  extension  of 
constructive  work,  and  creative  cnerg}^  in  our  educa- 
tional processes.     It  is  this  psychologj^  of  expression 


226  Pkl.\'CI!T.i:S    0|-    TKACIIIXG 

wliicli  is  used  lo  jusliU'  the  introdiieticni  of  manual 
training  and  eonstructive  work  into  our  ^ehools. 

A  Different  J  liter  fretation.— It  is  possible  that  a  some- 
what (lififerent  explanation  of  the  psychological  proc- 
ess involved  in  expression  will  be  more  satisfactory. 
A\'hen  we  think  of  anything,  we  give  attention  to  it. 
When  we  undertake  to  express  our  thought,  we  must 
give  increased  attention  to  it.  Attention  is  a  process 
by  which  a  nervous  impulse  is  directed  into  and 
through  a  brain  center.  If  a  nervous  impulse  be 
strong,  it  will  encounter  sufficient  resistance  to  force 
it  out  into  some  surrounding  center ;  and  since  the 
motor  centers  are  in  the  middle  of  the  brain  areas, 
and  since  they  have  been  used  much  from  birth,  and 
by  habit  have  become  easy  of  access  from  all  parts 
of  the  brain,  the  motor  centers  are  likely  to  be  the 
first  to  receive  this  overflow  from  the  brain  center 
that  is  traversed  by  a  strong  impulse. 

Cause  of  Expression. — Any  large  amount  of  nervous 
energy  passing  through  a  brain  center  will  oAxrflow 
and  run  into  some  expression  center.  In  order  that 
there  shall  be  expression,  then,  there  must  be  a  large 
amount  of  nervous  force,  and  this  is  a  condition  which 
accompanies  a  larger  amoimt  of  intellectual  activity. 
Hence  we  have  the  expression  accompanying,  rather 
than  causing,  a  greater  amount  of  intellectual  work. 
It  is  reall}^  the  attention  that  causes  the  greater 
amount  of  intellectual  work,  but  the  proper  expression 
is  an  evidence  rather  than  a  cause  of  the  greater  in- 
tellectual work  done. 


WHAT    TliACiiING    IS 


227 


Whatever  ma}-  be  the  pMchology  of  expression,  the 
fact  remains  that  no  process  oi  learn  ins;-  can  be  very 
satisfactor}-  which  is  not  accompanied  l)y  an  expres- 
sion of  the  thought  in  some  manner. 

Hoii'  the  Teacher  Assists  the  I'liNl. — The  pupil  is 
assisted  in  his  expression  and  in  his  thought  by  the 
teacher.  The  teacher  knows  the  mental  path,  knows 
where  it  is  easy  to  be  drawn  awa\-  from  it ;  and  at  the 
proper  time,  by  question  or  suggestion  or  calling  to 
mind  some  related  experience,  he  will  be  able  to 
bring  the  pupil  back  to  the  right  path  or  to  prevent 
his  leaving  it.  Often  by  the  form  of  question,  or  by 
the  look  of  the  teacher,  the  pii])il  is  directed  in  his 
thinking.  This  assistance  given  by  the  teacher,  which 
is  a  legitimate  part  of  his  work,  mav  be  so  overdone, 
especially  in  the  case  of  young  and  inexperienced  teach- 
ers, that  it  not  only  becomes  ludicrous,  but  disastrous  to 
any  thinking  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 

Class  Teachijii^. — We  have  been  using  expressions 
that  apply  to  only  a  single  pupil,  but  all  that  has  been 
said  belongs  in  equal  degree  to  every  member  of  the 
class.  The  teacher  must  know  the  mental  location  at 
any  time  of  every  member  of  the  class,  and  must  di- 
rect the  thousrht  of  each  one.  All  members  of  the 
class  must  be  traveling  the  same  mental  path  and 
must  be  thinking  the  same  thing  at  the  same  time. 
From  this  proposition,  certain  very  important  corol- 
laries follow. 


228  I'KI.XCIl'LliS   OF    TKACIII-XG 

Class  Unity. — In  the  first  place,  thinking  the  same 
thing  at  the  same  time  maintains  a  class  unity  which 
is  the  ideal  in  school  teaching.  It  settles  all  cases 
of  discipline,  for  there  can  be  no  disorder  while  all 
are  thinking  the  same  thing.  The  teacher  who  would 
be  a  good  disciplinarian  must  set  as  his  ideal  the  main- 
tenance of  this  class  unitv  in  teaching. 

Nunihcr  hi  a  Class.- — In  the  second  place,  this  consid- 
eration fixes  the  number  of  pupils  that  can  be  profit- 
ably taught  in  one  class.  We  may  tell  a  thousand 
persons  at  once.  l)ut  we  cannot  teach  a  thousand.  .V 
hundred  puj^ils  in  a  class  is  too  many,  and  so  is  fifty. 
Some  have  said  that  there  should  not  be  more  than 
thirt}^  in  a  class,  and  perhaps  twenty-four  are  enough. 
A  young  teacher  cannot  teach  a  large  class  so  well 
as  can  a  teacher  of  the  same  ability  who  has  had 
more  experience.  If  a  class  is  well  graded,  a  larger 
number  can  be  well  taught  than  if  it  is  not.  The  rule 
must  always  be  that  no  greater  number  is  permissible 
than  that  whose  mental  location  can  be  known  by 
the  teacher  at  any  instant.  The  teacher  must  be  able 
to  know,  generally,  just  what  each  pupil  in  the  class 
is  thinking  at  any  time.  With  most  teachers,  a  class 
of  ten  or  fifteen  is  better  than  a  larger  number. 

Pupil  Recites  to  the  Class. — Another  corollary  fol- 
lows. When  a  pupil  is  called  upon  to  recite,  he  re- 
cites to  the  whole  class  and  not  to  the  teacher.  The 
recitation  is  not  a  matter  of  private  conversation  be- 
tween llu^  tcaclicr  ;md  llic  pupil  who  is  reciting.     Every 


WHAT    TI".\(11I.N(".    IS  229 

meinbcr  of  tlic  cla>--  iuu>i  l»r  ilnnkiiiL;'  tlu'  saiu'.: 
UiDUi^ht  at  llio  same  tiiiic,  and  lliat  will  iiol  he  pi)ssih'c 
unless  the  recitation  is  in  the  whole  class  and  every 
member  of  the  class  knows  where  the  pupil  who  is 
reciting  is  mentally  located. 

Pupil  Recites  for  the  Class. — A  corollary  similar  to  the 
last  also  follows.  The  pupil  who  is  reciting  is  speak- 
ing for  the  whole'  class.  He  represents  the  meeting 
as  its  spokesman,  and  is  reciting  the  thoughts  of  the 
class.  A  pupil  who  finds  that  his  thoughts  are  not 
represented  by  the  one  reciting,  has  a  right  to  object, 
and  it  is  his  duty  to  do  so. 

Teacher  Looks  at  Other  Members  of  the  Class. — 
Since  the  teacher  must  know  the  location  of  each 
pupil  in  the  class,  it  will  be  necessary  for  him  to 
look  at  the  other  members  rather  than  at  the  one 
who  is  reciting.  The  teacher  can  judge  what  the 
person  who  is  reciting  is  thinking  by  what  he  says; 
but  he  must  judge  of  what  the  other  members  of  the 
class  are  thinking  by  other  indications.  He  may  judge 
by  the  expressions  of  their  faces,  or  by  the  involun- 
tary movements  that  they  make,  which,  if  he  w'ere 
skillful  enough,  would  enable  him  to  read  clearly  the 
thoughts  that  each  one  experiences. 

Order  of  Propounding::  Questions. — The  teacher  usu- 
allv  indicates  the  point  of  beginning  of  the  train  of 
thought  by  asking  a  question,  making  a  suggestion 
or  stating  a  topic.  The  teacher  may  ask  a  question 
and  then  designate  some  member  of  the  class  to  ans- 


230  I'KI  XCII'I.I'S    ()!■     'I  I'.ACIIING 

w'cr  it,  or  Ik-  may  desigiiati-  the  person  to  answer  be- 
fore the  (|nestion  is  asked.  One  of  these  nietlKids  of 
])roee(hire  eonforms  to  the  ])rineii)les  here  hiid  down 
and  the  other  docs  not.  It  is  exident  that  it'  the  per- 
son to  answer  is  designated  before  the  cpiestion  i-: 
asked,  there  is  a  lack  of  responsibibty  felt  by  the  other 
members  of  the  class,  and  there  is  likely  t<^  be  a 
failure  to  maintain  the  unity  of  thought  in  the  class. 
If  the  pupil  to  answer  is  designated  before  the  ques- 
tion is  asked,  the  assumption  is  that  the  question  is 
asked  directly  to  that  pupil.  If  the  question  is  asked 
before  the  pupil  is  designated,  the  iiu])lication  is  th:it 
the  question  is  asked  of  the  whole  class,  and  the 
pupil  designated  to  answer  it  is  merely  the  representa- 
tive spokesman  of  the  class.  .\  teacher  who  has  a 
proper  conception  of  class  unity  Avill  always  put  the 
question  before  designating  the  pupil  to  answer  it. 
but  a  teacher  who  merely  conforms  to  the  rule  with- 
out feeling  the  importance  of  the  principle  which 
the  rule  expresses,  will  be  little  helped  by  such  con- 
formity. This  idea  of  the  relation  of  the  pupil  who 
is  reciting  to  the  rest  of  the  class  obA'iates  the  neces- 
sity of  keeping  a  ledger  account  of  the  number  of 
times  that  a  pupil  is  called  upon.  Every  pupil  's 
called  upon  every  time,  and  is  to  be  held  responsible 
for  the  recitation. 

Difference  fu^tweeu  the  Thiiikiiit:;  of  lite  Teacher  and 
Pnpii — The  pupil  and  the  teacher  think  the  ';ame  thoughts 
at  the  same  time;  btit  there  is  a  difference  between  the 


\N11.\T    TLlAClll.XG    IS  231 

lliiiikiiig'  i^l  llic  \)U\n\  and  llic  Uiinkiiii^"  oi  llic  IcacluT. 
The  pupil  thinks  ihc  thouglu  ui  the  lesson,  and  the 
teacher  thinks  the  thcnightul  the  pupik  The  pupil 
thinks  the  thoui^ht  of  the  lesson  as  he  understands  it, 
and  the  teacher  thinks  the  lesson  as  the  pupil  thinks  it. 
The  teacher  needs  to  keep  his  mind  in  immediate  con- 
tact with  the  mind  (jf  the  i)upil.  There  is  also  another 
different.  The  thing  that  the  teacher  recognizes  first 
in  the  beginning"  of  the  process  of  teaching  is  the  ef- 
fect that  it  is  desired  to  produce  upon  the  mind  and 
character  of  the  pupil  1)\  the  jjrocess  of  teaching.  The 
teacher  must  know  this  eft'ect.  This  is  the  justifica- 
tion fur  the  consideration  of  the  end  or  purpose  of 
education  in  Chapters  4  and  5. 

Teacher  RLXOL^iii:^cs  Order  of  Processes. — When  the 
effect  which  it  is  desired  to  produce  has  been  de- 
termined, then  the  teacher  needs  to  recognize  the 
mental  processes  which  it  is  necessary  for  the  child 
to  go  through  in  order  that  this  eff'ect  shall  be  pro- 
duced upon  his  mind  ami  character.  This  shows  the 
necessity  for  the  study  of  psychology  b_\"  the  teacher. 
When  these  mental  processes  have  been  recognized, 
then  the  teacher  selects  the  subjects  and  exercises 
which  may  be  employed  with  the  greatest  economy 
of  eft'ort  tn  induce  in  the  minds  of  tlie  ])upils  these 
thoughts  and  mental  ])rocesscs. 

//'//(//  the  I'Kf^il  ('iKferstaiids. — Willi  llie  pupil  the 
process  is  completeh-  reversed.  Tlie  ])upil  sees  first, 
ami    i)crhaps   sees   onl\',   the   means   that   are   U)   be   em- 


232  I'KIXCII'LKS    Ol'    Ti:.\Clll.\G 

ployed  in  his  education,  lie  sees  that  he  is  stiidyins^ 
arithmetic,  or  history,  or  zoology,  lie  knows,  for  ex- 
ample, that  he  is  studying  a  grasshopper  or  a  crawfish 
or  an  earthworm,  and  is  trying  to  find  out  all  about 
it.  He  knows  that  he  is  trying  to  find  the  gills  or  the 
spiracles  or  the  mouthparts  or  the  sense  organs.  The 
teacher  knows  that  the  pupil  is  using  his  mind  in  the 
process  of  abstraction,  analysis,  discrimination,  com- 
paring, judging,  generalizing,  and  in  logical  definition. 
The  pupil  knows  nothing  about  the  mental  processes 
that  the  teacher  is  causing  him  to  experience,  and 
really  he  needs  to  know  nothing  about  them.  The 
best  results  are  obtained  by  coming  at  them  indirectly. 
The  astronomer  exercises  his  keenest  sight  by  means 
of  averted  vision.  The  pupil  may  come  sometime  to 
realize  that  he  did  employ  the  mental  processes  in- 
dicated, and  that  it  was  a  good  thing  for  him  to  do  ; 
but  ordinarily  he  knows  nothing"  more  about  his  work 
than  that  he  was  trying  to  learn  the  subjects  of  in- 
struction. If,  however,  the  teacher  knows  nothing 
more  than  this,  he  can  ne\er  rise  al)Ovc  the  plane  of 
an  amateur,  and  must  fail  to  reach  the  dignity  of  an 
artist  or  professional  teacher.  Sometime,  usually  a 
long  time  afterward,  the  ]iupil.  by  comparing  himself 
witli  iiersons  who  did  not  have  the  ad\antages  that 
he  himselt  has  expericncHMl.  nia\-  come  1o  vorogni/.e 
that  the  \\(irk  which  he  a(."C(nni>lislK'(l  in  school  has 
had  an  effect  ui)on  his  mind  and  character.  S«)  the 
point    that    the    teacher     started    from    is   the   point    at 


WHAT    TliAClllNG    IS  233 

wliicli  the  pupil  arrives  last.  The  last  thing-  to  be 
considered  by  the  teacher  is  the  first,  and  often  the 
( mly  thing-  considered  by  the  pupil.  In  this  fact  we 
liave  an  explanation  of  the  different  view  points  of 
the  teacher  and  the  pupil,  as  well  as  an  explanation 
of  the  dift'erence  between  the  kinds  of  knowledge  of 
the  subject  that  the  teacher  and  pupil  must  have. 

Synopsis. 

1.  Teaching  is  an  activity  of  the  teacher  which  is 
designed  to  produce  an  eft'ect  upon  the  mind  and 
character  of  the  pupil. 

2.  Teaching  is  not  telling.  Teaching  consists  in 
causing  the  mind  of  the  pupil  to  traverse  the  same 
mental  path  that  the  teacher  is  going  over.  The  teacher 
and  the  pupil  must  travel  the  same  mental  path  at 
the  same  time. 

3.  Traveling  the  same  mental  path  at  the  same 
time  maintains  a  unity  between  teacher  and  pupil 
that  is  the  ideal  condition  for  all  school  work,  in- 
cluding discipline. 

4.  The  teacher  must  know^  where  the  pupil  is  men- 
tally located  at  any  time,  and  from  this  fact  arises  the 
necessity  for  expression  l)y  the  pupil. 

5.  The  entire  class  must  be  a  miit.  and  this  fact 
fixes  the  status  of  the  jmi-iil  wlio  reciU'S.  lie  rorilcs 
to  the  whole  cLt-s  nnfl  for  the  whole  class:  llic  Icnclicr 
watches  the  e\]ire<<i(in  (in  llic  faces  of  ihe  re^l  of  tlic 
class  rather  than  the  pupil  who  is  reciting.     Only  that 


234  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

number  can  be  taught  at  any  one  time  whose  mental 
location  can  be  known  by  the  teacher  at  any  i.istant. 
The  teacher  must  indicate  tlie  point  of  beginning  be- 
fore designating  the  pupil  who  is  to  recite. 


1 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
The  Recitation. 

Importance  of  the  Recitation. — The  most  imports 
function  of  the  school  is  the  recitation.  All  conside 
ations  about  the  schoolhouse,  its  lighting,  its  heating, 
its  ventilation ;  all  matters  concerning  the  course  of 
study,  the  sul^jects  of  instruction,  the  length  of  the 
school  day,  the  number  of  months  in  the  school  year ; 
all  these  things  are  subordinate  to  the  recitation.  If 
the  recitation  is  a  failure,  none  of  these  other  things 
can  make  the  school  work  a  success.  It  is  in  and 
through  the  recitation  that  the  teacher  produces  that 
effect  upon  the  mind  and  character  of  the  child  which 
it  is  the  purpose  of  all  good  teaching  to  accomplish. 
In  the  recitation,  the  pupil  and  the  teacher  come  into 
that  immediate  contact  with  each  other  which  en- 
ables the  teacher  to  bring  about  the  effect  that  the 
school  is  established  to  produce. 

Literal  Meaning;  of  the  JVord. — Since  the  recitation 
is  of  such  extreme  importance,  we  are  justified  in 
giving  it  the  most  careful  consideration.  The  literal 
meaning  is  to  say  over,  or  to  say  again,  or  to  say 
back.  The  root  cif  means  to  say,  and  re  means  again, 
or   back.      So.   literally,   tlic    word    recitation   means  the 

235 


236  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

act  of  >a\in_i;'  over,  or  sayinj^"  ])ack,  that  whicli  has 
\)vvn  ]. resented  to  the  pupil,  eillur  orally  or  hy  uu'aiis 
(»!'  a  hook.  This  was  no  doiiht  a  correct  designation 
of  the  process  in  the  practice  of  the  okl  teacher  of 
Latin,  who  in  all  probabilit}  first  a.pphed  this  term 
to  the  recitation.  It  exactly  describes  the  process  that 
is  exemplified  in  the  practice  of  the  Chinese  schools. 

Exemplification  of  the  Literal  Meaning. — In  China, 
a  lesson  is  assigned  from  a  book.  The  pupil  goes  to 
his  proper  place  on  the  floor  and  shouts  out  his  les- 
son as  loud  as  he  can  until  he  believes  that  he  is 
able  to  say  over  the  portion  of  the  text  that  has  been 
assigned  to  him.  He  learns  the  words,  and  there  is 
no  demand  made  upon  him  that  he  should  learn  the 
thought.  If  the  last  word  on  the  page  which  marks 
the  limit  of  his  lesson  is  m  the  middle  of  a  sentence, 
or  even  if  it  be  the  first  word  of  a  sentence,  the  pupil 
stops  his  learning  right  there  and  does  not  trouble 
himself  about  the  meaning  of  the  word  or  the  sentence. 
Then  he  comes  up  to  the  teacher,  hands  him  his  book, 
turns  his  back  to  the  teacher  and  repeats  the  words  of 
the  text  that  he  has  learned.  This  process  is  called 
"backing  the  book."  Formerly,  the  process  of  teach- 
ing in  European  and  American  schools  was  something 
very  like  this;  but  happily,  the  practice  has  fallen 
completely  into  disuse,  or  lingers  only  in  a  few^  places 
where  the  light  of  better  things  has  not  penetrated. 

A  More  Extended  Meaning. — Recitation  now  means 
much  more  than  giving  back  what  has  been  learned. 


THE  KECITATION  237 

We  ought  to  have  a  better  name  for  the  process  than 
we  have,  and  one  which  does  not  need  so  much  ex- 
planation. lUit  the  term  recitation  is  well  established, 
and  we  may  extend  its  meaning  and  kcej)  the  word 
with  less  danger  of  misapprehension  than  we  should 
encounter  l)y  coining  a  new  one.  It  might  be  remarked 
here,  that  in  England  the  word  lesson  is  more  com- 
monly used  to  designate  the  process  to  which  we  apply 
the  term   recitation. 

Tlic  Tcstiu;^  Element. — We  may  discover  in  the  reci- 
tation ai  least  lour  different  elements.  A  complete 
recitation  will  include  something  of  each  of  these  four. 
The  first  clement  is  testing,  which  is  designed  to  dis- 
cover whether  or  not  the  pupil  has  studied  his  les- 
son, and  that  he  has  been  faithful  in  making  the 
preparation  which  he  is  expected  to  make.  It  serves 
as  an  incentixe  to  study;  and  w^ithout  it.  in  many  case?, 
the  pupil  would  become  negligent  and  fail  to  make  the 
preparation  that  has  been  demanded. 

The  Test  as  Incentive  to  Study: — Let  us  suppose 
that  a  lesson  has  been  assigned  for  study  from  a 
text  book,  to  a  class  in  the  seventh  or  eighth  grade, 
in  any  school  in  the  country.  If  there  is  a  feeling  that 
they  will  not  be  held  to  a  recitation  or  to  a  report  of 
their  study,  a  very  large  number  rif  pupils  will  fail  to 
put  a  proper  amount  of  effort  into  the  learning  of  tb.o 
lesson  assigned.  The  testing  lesson,  then,  serves  as 
a  spur  to  study. 

Punislnneiil    for   Failure. — Fortncrlv,    Ihc    failure    in 


238  PRINCIPLES   01-    TEACHIXG 

the  test  was  considered  a  matter  for  punishment  by 
the  teacher.  A  pupil  who  failed  to  stud}  his  lesson, 
as  shown  by  his  recitation  test,  was  whipped,  or  kept 
in  after  school,  or  made  to  stand  un  the  floor,  or  sub- 
jected to  some  other  form  of  i)unishment.  While  the 
severity  that  is  visited  upon  a  delinquent  is  not  so 
great  as  it  formerly  was,  the  idea  of  punishment  for 
delinquency  still  persists.  The  teacher's  disapproval, 
or  scolding,  or  sarcastic  remark,  or  lack  of  commenda- 
tion, or  even  the  pupil's  feeling  of  failure  still  serves 
as  an  incentive  to  faithful  preparation.  The  oppor- 
tunity to  recite  when  a  lesson  has  been  prepared  well, 
is  an  incentive  of  another  kind.  When  a  pupil  has 
prepared  his  lesson  well,  it  is  a  source  of  satisfaction 
to  him  to  be  permitted  to  recite,  and  to  tell  what  he 
has  learned.  So,  in  the  test  of  the  recitation,  there  is 
a  double  inducement  to  study. 

Where  No  Test  is  Employed. — In  the  German  Uni- 
versities, and  in  some  other  schools,  there  is  no  test- 
ing lesson.  A  student  in  a  German  University  may 
study  or  he  may  not  study.  He  may  attend  lectures 
or  he  may  not  attend  them.  He  may  read  the  books 
recommended  or  he  may  not  read  them.  He  is  per- 
fectly free  to  do  as  he  wishes  to  do.  If,  however,  he 
desires  to  obtain  a  degree,  or  other  recognition  of 
good  work,  he  appears  before  the  examiners  and  takes 
an  examination.  The  examination  is  supposed  to  show 
v,'hether  he  has  studied  well  or  not.  No  one  who 
needs   the   incentive   to    studv   (luil    is    furui-^licd   by   the 


TTIK    RI-.riTATIOX  239 

dailv  recitation  (nif^ht  t(_)  g'o  to  a  German  rnivcrsity. 

Other  .Idraiitai^cs  of  the  7\\^t. — The  test  includes 
other  thniiis.  liowexer,  Ijcsides  the  inchicenient  to 
studv.  In  the  tost  iip')n  the  lesson  studied,  there  is 
an  opportunity  to  correct  any  mistakes  that  have  been 
conceived  and  t()  modify  any  misapprehensions  that 
the  pu[Ml  may  have  made. 

The  pupil  has  an  opportunity  to  compare  his  un- 
derstanding of  the  subject  with  the  understanding  that 
the  other  pupils  have  obtained.  The  very  attempt  it- 
self to  put  the  knowledge  that  has  been  gained  by 
study  into  such  a  form  that  it  may  be  recited  tends 
to  make  it  clearer,  and  has  a  very  decided  effect  upon 
its  value.  Nevertheless,  the  principal  significance  of 
the  testino-  element  in  the  recitation  is  the  incentive 
to  study. 

The  Test  Not  ail  Essential  Element. — The  test  is 
reallv  not  the  most  essential  part  of  the  recitation. 
If  the  teacher  knows  that  the  class  has  studied  the 
lesson  he  mav  proceed  as  if  the  assignment  had  been 
recited.  He  may  use  the  ideas  that  have  been  gained 
from  the  study  of  the  lesson  as  a  raw  material  out  of 
which  to  l)uil(l  a  more  complete  lesson  structure  than 
he  would  be  able  to  do  by  merely  testing.  So  while 
we  may  never  be  able  to  dispense  with  the  test,  it  is 
not  an  essential  element  of  the  recitation  pro]>er.  It  de- 
pends for  its  value  upon  the  weakness  and  inefficiency 
and  general  untrustworthiness  of  child  nature.  This 
is    true,    notwithstanding    the    fact    that    many    teachers 


240  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

can  see  nothing  in  the  recitation  except  the  test,  and 
that  when  this  has  been  satisfactorily  made,  they  are 
pleased  with  the  result,  fcrliuj^-  tliat  their  whole  duty 
has  been  done. 

When  the  Testini^  Element  is  Necessary. — Whether 
the  test  shall  be  the  principal  element  in  the  recita- 
tion or  not  depends  upon  the  relation  of  the  teacher  to 
his  pupils.  If  the  pupils  are  inattentive,  idle,  indis- 
posed to  study,  then  the  teacher  may  wisely  make  the 
recitation  largely,  or  even  entirely  a  test,  and  mini- 
mize for  the  time  being,  the  other  and  more  important 
elements.  Until  good  habits  of  study  have  been 
formed,  and  confidential  relations  established  between 
teacher  and  class,  the  teacher  will  probably  find  it 
advantageous  to  adhere  closely  to  the  recitation  of  the 
facts  in  the  lesson  assigned. 

The  Instruction  Element. — The  second  element  in 
the  recitation  is  teaching,  or  instruction.  No  text  book 
lesson  contains  all  about  the  subject  under  consid- 
eration that  the  pupils  should  know.  There  is  a  nec- 
essity for  furnishing  details  that  Avould  otherwise  be 
omitted.  Text-books  that  are  made  in  one  part  of  the 
country  for  one  class  of  schools  and  for  one  class  of 
children  are  used  in  another  part  of  the  country,  by 
another  kind  of  schools,  and  another  class  of  children. 
No  text-book  is  perfectly  adapted  to  the  partictilar 
class  that  is  using  it,  and  the  adaptation  must  be 
made  in  and  through  the  recitation.  This  adaptation 
constitutes  part  of  the  element  called  instruction. 


THE   RECITATION'  241 

Foruis  of  Instruction. — Instruction  may  take  the  form 
of  direct  tcllint^  by  the  teacher.  'Plie  teacher  ouglil  to 
know  a  .i^ood  deal  more  abmit  tlie  subject  than  can  be 
stated  in  the  text-book  used,  and  he  may  tell  some 
of  the  things  that  are  necessary  to  a  proper  under- 
standing- of  the  lesson  assigned.  Some  of  the  pupils 
may  have  had  experiences  which  are  more  helpful  tha!i 
any  that  the  teacher  is  able  to  give,  or  than  that 
which  is  stated  in  the  text  book.  Concrete  illustra- 
tions adapted  to  the  experiences  of  children  are  al- 
ways helpful  and  satisfying. 

Report  of  Topics  Read. — Certain  pupils  may  have 
been  assigned  topics  to  read  and  to  report  upon.  Some 
teachers  use  this  device  very  successfully  for  instruc- 
tion, but  it  has  serious  limitations  that  diminish  its 
usefulness.  If  an  article  or  a  book  is  good  for  one 
member  of  the  class  to  read,  it  ought  to  be  good  for 
all  pupils  in  the  class  to  read  it.  It  is  not  the  work 
of  the  class  as  a  whole  that  is  to  benefit  the  inembers, 
but  it  is  the  work  of  each  individual  that  is  to  benefit 
him.  It  adds  nothing  to  the  efficiency  of  the  class  for 
its  members  to  read  a  hundred  articles,  if  each  mem- 
ber of  the  class  has  read  only  two.  The  same  good 
might  be  derived  by  the  diiTerent  members  of  the 
class  from  reading  the  same  two  articles,  as  if  each 
member  had  read  two  different  articles.  In  fact,  for 
some  reasons  the  smaller  the  number  of  references 
read  the  better,  since  it  is  probable  that  the  smaller 
number   selected    would   be   better   than   the   average 


242  I'KINCli'LIiS   OF    TEACHING 

of  the  larger  number.  The  report  that  is  made  upon 
the  reading"  of  an  article  bv  a  member  of  the  class 
would  in  all  probability  benefit  the  other  members  of 
the  class  most  if  it  were  made  by  the  teacher.  It 
must  be  understood  that  the  principal  benefit  in  the 
reporting  is  obtained  by  the  one  who  makes  the  re- 
port, rather  than  by  those  who  merely  hear  it. 

Advantage  of  Reporting  Upon  Readings  Assigned. — 
On  the  other  hand,  the  person  who  makes  the  report 
is  reciting,  just  as  he  would  be  w'ere  he  to  recite  upon 
the  lesson  assigned  to  all  members  of  the  class.  His 
report,  or  recitation,  is  likely  to  be  longer,  and  to  oc- 
cupy more  time  than  the  ordinary  recitation  upon  the 
lesson  assigned  to  the  whole  class.  It  demands  a 
greater  ability  to  organize  the  larger  mass  of  material 
than  it  does  to  recite  briefly  upon  a  subordinate  topic. 

What  Teaching  Includes. — But  this  second  element 
of  the  recitation  includes,  also,  teaching  in  the  more 
technical  sense  of  the  word.  We  mean  by  teaching 
not  what  is  very  unwisely  called  imparting  informa- 
tion, but  we  mean  the  holding  of  the  attention  of  the 
pupils  upon  the  subject  of  the  lesson  until  the  relation 
which  the  teacher  knows  to  be  significant  appears  to 
the  children.  We  have  examined  this  process  in  the 
preceding  chapter  under  the  title  of  "Teaching  How  to 
Study."  It  is  perhaps  the  most  important  element 
in  the  recitation,  and  makes  of  the  recitation  a  study 
lesson,  as  the  testing  element  makes  of  it  a  testing 
lesson.     After  the  lesson  has  been  studied  and  recited 


d 


THE   UECITATIOX  243 

by  the  pupil  the  real  lesson,  ihc  most  important  part 
of  the  recitation,  is  just  ready  to  he.^in.  The  facts 
have  been  learned,  they  are  at  hand,  and  now  the 
teacher  demands  that  the  pupils  shall  discover  and 
shall  state  the  relations  that  exist  between  these  facts. 
The  pupil  who  has  learned  the  facts  in  his  history 
lesson,  or  in  any  other  lesson,  assigned,  is  in  the 
position  of  the  student  of  botany  who  has  undertaken 
to  study  a  flower  and  has  merely  picked  it.  A  person 
who  has  gathered  a  flower  or  a  handful  of  flowers 
has  not  finished  his  study  of  botany  nor  of  that  part 
of  botany  which  the  flower  represents.  lie  now  needs 
to  study  the  plant  and  to  discover  all  the  relations  in 
it  which  adapt  it  to  its  situation. 

Remembering  a  Preliminary. — In  the  same  way,  a 
student  who  has  studied  his  lesson  and  has  learned  the 
facts  reported  in  his  text  is  now  merely  ready  to 
discover  the  relation  existing  between  those  facts  and 
the  general  principles  of  which  the  facts  are  manifes- 
tations. This  is  the  part  of  the  recitation  in  which 
the  greater  number  of  teachers  fail,  and  it  is  the  one 
in  which  the  manifestation  of  the  greatest  skill  on  the 
part  of  tlie  teacher  may  appear.  This  element  of  the 
recitation  shows  whether  the  teacher  is  an  artist  in 
his  profession,  or  merely  a  plodder  and  an  artisan. 

The  Reinew  Element.— But  the  recitation  includes 
another  clement  that  must  not  be  overlooked.  Thi=? 
clement  is  revioAv.  Review  means  looking  at  the  sub- 
ject again,  and  every  complete  recitation  must  include 


244  I'KlNCll'LES   UF    TKAClilNG 

something  of  review.  Review  is  necessary  in  conse- 
quence of  the  great  rapidity  with  which  things  are 
forgotten.  In  the  first  twentv-four  hours  after  a 
thing  has  been  learned,  about  two-thirds  of  it  is  for- 
gotten ;  in  six  days  aljout  three-fourths,  and  in  a 
month  about  four-fifths.  The  first  few  hours  after 
learning  involve  the  larger  amount  of  forgetting. 
Review,  or  relearning,  is  necessary  for  fixing  in  the 
mind  the  things  that  have  been  learned,  so  that  they 
may  become  a  permanent  possession.  Nothing  ever 
Ix^comes  a  permanent  possession  jjy  a  single  learning, 
but  must  I)e  repeated  and  relearned. 

Necessity  for  Reviezv. — There  is  another  reason  for 
review.  The  things  that  were  learned  in  yesterdav's 
lesson  are  needed  in  today's.  We  wish  to  discover  tlie 
relations  between  the  ideas  expressed  in  yesterdav's 
lesson  and  those  expressed  in  today's,  and  in  order  to 
perceive  the  relations  most  clearly,  we  need  to  have 
the  ideas  of  both  lessons  as  clearh-  in  mind  as  possible. 
The  apperceiving  mass  must  be  as  fresh  and  as  a\'ail- 
able  for  service  as  it  is  possible  to  have  it.  Onlv  in 
this  way  can  we  make  the  best  use  of  what  we  ha\-e 
already  learned. 

Time  for  Rez'iezi's. — Review  may  come  either  at  the 
beginning  of  the  lesson,  or  at  the  conclusion  of  the 
test.  Its  proper  place  is  at  the  beginning  of  the 
lesson  period,  for  by  placing  it  there  we  are  able  to 
make  use  of  the  freshly  reviewed  knowledge  in  a  wa^• 
tlial   wcndd  be  impossible  if  it    were   placed  after  the 


TIIK    KLa  ITA'lloN 


245 


te>l.  riu'  (li^a<lv;lnl;l,^l•  <>\  i)laciii!;  llic  review  at  llie 
.  l)e_<;iuiiiu,i;-  "f  the  reeilalitm  period  is  a  slroiii;-  prciha- 
l)ililv  thai  ihe  leaeher  and  the  elass  will  s])eiul  so 
niuch  lime  in  reviewing  that  there  will  not  be  suffi- 
eient  to  cover  the  new  work.  Pupils  are  likely  to  be 
more  skillful  in  forgetting-  than  the  most  cautious 
teacher  is  able  to  give  them  credit  for;  and  wdiile  the 
necessity  for  reviewing  is  thus  more  strongly  empha- 
sized, the  amount  of  time  demanded  by  the  process  is 
startlingly  exaggerated. 

A    Practical  DifficnUy.—li   the    review    is   thus    pro- 
longed, and  the  advance  lesson  not  fully  covered,  thou 
it    is    a    matter    worthy    of    careful    consideration    just 
where    the    next    day's    recitation    shall    begin.      Shall 
the   teacher   begin   the   recitation   of   the    following   day 
with  the  advance  lesson  assigned,  or  shall  he  begin  at 
the  place  where  the  recitation   closed?     To  begin   with 
the  advance  means  that  there  shall  be  a  hiatus  of  un^ 
recited   material   from   which   no   benefit   is  derived   in 
the  recitation.     However,   it  appears  that  the  advan- 
tages of  this  plan  of  beginning  with  the  advance  will 
outweigh  the  advantage  of  the  other.     It  keeps  faith 
with  the  class,  and   it   serves   as  an   inducement  to  the 
teacher   to   see   that   the   entire   lesson    is   covered   in 
every  recitation.  Otherwise,  there  arises  an  uncertainty 
about    everv    lesson,    which    is    conducive    to    anything 
rather    than    to    consistent    study    on    the    part    of    the 
pupils.      We    mav    begin    at    the    beginning    of    every 
lesson,  and  let  each  lesson  take  care  of  itself. 


24()  i'KiNcirij:s  of  teaching 

I'onii  of  the  Revieiv. — The  review  ought  to  be  not 
merely  a  repetition.  It  may  have  been  recited  seriatim 
yesterday.  In  today's  review  w-e  may  begin  with  the 
central  thought  and  organize  around  it  all  the  rest 
of  the  lesson  material.  We  need  in  the  review  to  look 
at  the  subject  from  a  new  angle  if  possible,  and  that 
review  is  best  which  differs  somewhat  from  the  recita- 
tion of  the  day  before. 

Purpose  of  Drill. — Drill  is  a  more  emphatic  form  of 
review,  whose  purpose  is  to  make  the  subject  mat- 
ter a  permanent  possession.  \\'e  drill  to  secure  such 
familiarity  with  some  portions  of  knowledge  that  we 
may  have  them  at  hand  without  effort  in  recalling 
them.  A\'e  need  to  know  some  things  automatically, 
without  thinking  about  them.  It  is,  in  some  cases,  a 
perfectly  proper  demand  on  the  part  of  the  teacher  to 
say  to  a  pupil,  "I  do  not  want  you  to  think,  I  want 
you  to  know."  We  need  to  know  some  things  with- 
out thinking.  "We  need  to  acquire  the  kind  of  fam- 
iliarity that  comes  from  drill  in  case  of  the  multiplica- 
tion table,  the  spelling  of  certain  words,  the  processes 
of  arithmetic,  the  shape  and  phonetic  value  of  the  let- 
ters of  the  alphabet. 

Devices  in  Drill. — The  difficulty  in  drill  is  to  main- 
tain the  interest  and  attention  of  the  children  with- 
out weariness,  until  the  processes  of  drill  have  ac- 
complished the  purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  Here 
the  teacher  needs  to  be  skillful  in  devices.  The  de- 
vice of  headmarks   in  spelling,  of  competitive   stand- 


THE   RECITATION  247 

ings  in  grammar  or  geography,  the  device  of  prob- 
lems in  arithmetic, — for  prol)lenis  are  generally  de- 
vices for  drill  involving  an  appeal  to  the  puzzle  in- 
stinct, rather  than  statements  of  principles, — all  of 
these  devices  may  secure  the  attention  and  interest  of 
children  while  the  drill  is  continued  long  enough  to 
fix  the  principles  and  processes  in  the  mind.  The 
principal  difficulty  is  that  when  once  a  teacher  has 
secured  a  satisfactory  device  for  drill,  which  holds  the 
interest  of  the  children,  he  is  likely  to  think  that  he 
has  discovered  a  new  process  of  teaching,  and  will 
work  the  device  to  a  funereal  conclusion.  Such  an 
exaggeration  of  drill  as  we  have  seen  in  some  so- 
called  methods  of  arithmetic  is  likely  to  be  injurious 
to  children  rather  than   helpful. 

The  Assignment  as  on  Element. — A  fourth  element 
in  the  recitation  is  the  assignment  of  the  lesson.  It 
is  not  a  teaching  element,  but  it  is  a  matter  of  such 
essential  importance  to  successful  preparation  of  the 
lesson  on  the  part  of  the  children  that  it  easily  as- 
sumes the  first  place  in  the  list  of  things  to  be  done  in 
the  time  of  recitation.  A  teacher  who  carelessly 
turns  over  the  pages  of  a  book  at  the  end  of  the  hour 
and  says  "Take  to  the  bottom  of  page  131,"  has  not 
made  a  good  assignment.  In  order  to  make  the  as- 
signment, the  teacher  must  study  the  lesson,  not 
merely  read  it  over,  before  the  assignment  is  made. 
He  must  know  where  the  hard  places  are.  and  what 
difficulties  are  likelv  to  be  encountered.     He  must  know 


248  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

tlic  relation  of  this  lesson  to  the  lessons  that  have 
preceded  it,  and  why  this  lesson  is  necessary  to  the 
proper  understanding  of  the  lessons  that  are  to  follow. 
This  may  necessitate  a  rearrangement  of  the  order 
of  the  text-book  matter  according  to  the  needs  of  the 
children  and  the  comprehension  of  the  teacher.  Until 
the  teacher  knows  the  lesson  in  this  way,  he  is  not 
ready  to  make  a  good  assignment. 

Time  for  Assigiuuoit. — The  assignment  may  be  made 
at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation  period  or  at  the  end 
of  it.  The  disadvantage  of  waiting  to  the  end  of  the 
recitation  period  to  make  the  assignment  is  that  nearly 
always  in  such  a  case  there  will  not  be  time  enough  to 
make  the  assignment  in  the  proper  way,  and  poorly 
prepared  lessons  will  result.  If  the  assignment  is 
made  at  the  beginning  of  the  recitation  period,  there 
will  always  be  sufficient  time  to  make  the  assignment 
properly,  although  it  has  some  attendant  disadvan- 
tages. It  may  take  too  much  time,  and  the  time  for 
the  other  elements  of  the  recitation  may  be  thus  un- 
duly shortened. 

Advantage  of  Late  Assignment. — There  is  a  distinct 
advantage  in  making  the  assignment  in  the  light  of 
the  recitation  that  has  preceded  it.  The  recitation 
itself  may  not  be  so  satisfactory  as  the  teacher  has 
supposed  that  it  would  be.  and  the  lesson  assigned  at 
the  beginning  of  the  ])erifid  may  be  shown  by  the 
recitation  to  be  too  long,  or  too  short,  or  in  some 
other    respect    not    best    adapted    to    the    needs    of    the 


I 


THli   RliClTATlUX  24V' 

class.      If    such    .should    be    the    case,    there    will    be    a 
necessity    for   modifying   the   assignment.      However, 
with  lessons  that  need  careful  assignment,   and  nearly 
all  lessons  do,  the  beginning  of  the  recitation  period 
will  be  found  rather  more  satisfactory.     One  very  ex- 
cellent teacher  of  geography  frequently  occupied  half 
of  the  recitation  period  in  making  the  assignment  and 
the   lessons   were  always   well   studied  by   the   pupils. 
Sometimes  in  extreme  cases  the  entire  recitation  per- 
iod may  be  occupied  by  the  assignment,  and  the  recita- 
tion  may   follow   the   next   day.     This   is   sometimes 
called  a  lecture  form  of  recitation,  although  in  such 
cases  it  is  not  a  proper  designation  for  the  exercise. 
A   Good  Assignment. — A   poor  assignment   is   likely 
to  result   in   poorly  prepared  lessons  on   the   part  of 
the   pupils ;   a   good   assignment   will   greatly   encourage 
successful  study.     Not  only  should  the  pupils  know 
what  are  the  important  parts  of  the  lesson  assigned, 
but  they  should  be  given  some  directions  about  hoAv 
to  go  to  work  to  study  it.  and  >uch  information  about 
it  as  will  awaken  sufficient   interest  to  induce  study. 
^^'e  have  seen   that   it   is   impossible  to  be   interested 
in  anvthing  about  which  w^e  know  nothing,  and  whose 
relations    to   ourselves,    or   to    something   which    we   al- 
readv    know,     are    midiscernible.      So    the    teacher    in 
making  the   assignment   may  give   sufficient   informa- 
tion   to   arouse   interest,   and   not   so   much    as    \(>   de- 
stroy it. 

All    illustrations  here  employed  have  been   such   as 


250  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

will  apply  to  a  class  from  the  fifth  grade  who  are  using 
a  text-book  as  the  basis  of  their  study.  Under  other 
conditions  a  modification  of  these  suggestions  will  be 
imperative.  The  preceding  statements  have  illustrated, 
however,  a  general  principle  which  will  apply  with 
modifications  to  all  kinds  of  recitations. 

Synopsis. 

1.  The  recitation  is  the  most  important  factor  in 
all  school  work. 

2.  A  recitation  includes  four  elements:  testing, 
teaching,  review  and  assignment. 

3.  The  testing  element  is  employed  principally  as 
an  inducement  to  study,  and  is  not  in  itself  an  essen- 
tial part  of  the  lesson.  The  teaching  element  is  the 
heart  of  the  lesson,  and  demands  thinking,  or  the 
perception  of  relations  by  the  pupil. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

Different  Forms  of  Recitation. 

What  Form  of  Recitation  Means. — For  our  present 
purpose  we  may  distinguish  the  form  of  the  recitation 
from  the  method  of  the  recitation.  By  form  of  reci- 
tation we  shall  mean  in  this  chapter  the  procedure  in- 
volved in  the  management  of  the  class  as  a  whole 
during  the  recitation  period,  while  by  method  we 
shall  mean  the  procedure  relating  to  the  single  in- 
dividual who  is  called  upon  to  recite.  There  is  noth- 
ing essential  in  this  distinction,  and  it  is  used  here 
merely  as  a  matter  of  convenience. 

Concert  Recitation. — The  first  form  of  recitation 
which  w^e  wish  to  consider  is  the  concert  recitation. 
It  is  mentioned  mostly  for  the  purpose  of  condemna- 
tion, although  some  teachers  have  a  great  fondness 
for  it.  At  one  time  it  was  very  popular  in  the  schools 
of  this  country,  and  we  can  trace  it  back  a  long  way 
in  the  history  of  education.  It  was  most  easily  a])- 
plied  to  a  catechetical  system  of  instruction  in  which 
questions  were  printed  in  a  book  and  the  answers  fol- 
lowed. The  answers  were  expected  to  be  committed 
to  memory  and  recited. 

To  What  Limited. — In  the  concert  form  of  recitation, 

251 


252  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

all  ihf  pupils  in  a  class  say  the  same  words  at  the 
same  time.  It  is  limited  to  those  recitations  in  whicli 
a  set  form  of  words  may  be  used.  This  concert  form 
of  recitation  is  employed  in  teaching  reading,  per- 
haps more  frequently  than  in  any  other  subject,  at  the 
present  time.  It  is  evident  that  the  teacher  cannot 
know^  what  each  member  of  the  class  is  thinking  in 
this  case,  nor  where  each  pupil  is  mentally  located 
at  any  time,  nor  how  adequately  the  thought  is  ex- 
pressed, so  the  primary  purpose  of  the  recitation  is 
defeated.  Boys  have  been  known,  in  a  class  in  con- 
cert reading,  deliberately  to  mispronounce  words,  sub- 
stitute words  of  their  own  for  the  words  of  the  text, 
and  to  give  ludicrous  misinterpretations  to  the  thought 
of  the  selection  that  was  being  read,  without  the 
knowledge  of  the  teacher  or  any  other  members  of 
the  class  than  their  immediate  neighbors.  .\.ny  form 
of  recitation  that  affords  opportunity  for  such  disrup- 
tions of  unity  must  be  condemned. 

Singing  Geography. — Grammar,  arithmetic,  and  geo- 
raphy  are  sometimes  taught  by  the  concert  form  of 
recitation.  Years  ago  children  were  taught  to  re- 
member their  geography  lesson  by  singing  it.  "jNIaine, 
Augusta ;  Maine,  Augusta ;  on  the  Kennebec  River" 
represents  the  kind  of  geography  which  it  was  neces- 
sary for  the  children  to  sing  in  order  to  remember  it. 
Singing  geography  involved  the  employment  of  the 
concert  form  of  recitation,  and  may  be  take^i  as  a 
rather  typical  example. 


FOKxMS    OF    KHCliATlUN  2S3 

Illustration  of  Concert  Ez'ils. — A  teacher  who  was 
a  county  superintendent  had  a  great  fondness  for  con- 
cert recitation.  He  was  teaching  a  grammar  class,  and 
lined  them  up  at  the  blackboard  around  the  room. 
Each  pupil  wrote  the  sentence  which  the  teacher  pro- 
nounced, then  using  the  formula  for  parsing  and  an- 
alysis which  all  had  learned  and  which  was  rigidly 
adhered  to,  they  parsed  every  word.  Each  pupil  in  the 
class  who  knew  his  lesson  tried  to  make  himself  heard 
above  all  tlie  others.  Two  boys  represented  the  mas- 
culine contingent — (grammar  was  never  a  favorite 
subject  in  that  school  with  the  boys) — and  their  vocal 
contribution  was  "wow-wow-wow-wow, "  recited  with 
solemn  countenance  and  inward  hilarity.  It  served  the 
purpose  of  increasing  the  volume  of  sound,  and  the 
teacher  was  blissfully  unconscious  that  they  were  not 
participating  in  the  recitation. 

Utility  of  Concert  Recitation. — Concert  recitation  has 
a  limited  field  of  usefulness.  In  class  singing,  of 
course,  concert  recitation  is  the  one  great  aim.  In 
learning  the  phonetic  values  of  the  English  letters, 
where  there  must  be  sufficient  drill  to  produce  a  mus- 
cular memory,  the  drill  may  profitably  be  accom- 
plished in  concert.  So  drill  upon  certain  formulae, 
or  memory  gems,  or  the  multiplication  table  may  be 
profitably  accomplished  by  concert  exercise.  There 
is  an  additional  value  sometimes  in  the  fact  that 
timid  pupils  may  wear  away  their  timidity  by  speaking 
together  with  other  members  of  the  class. 


254  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

The  Text-hook  Form. — The  second  form  is  the  text- 
book recitation.  This  kind  of  recitation  assumes  that 
each  pupil  has  a  text-book  from  which  lessons  have 
been  assigned  and  studied.  Pupils  have  read  and  re- 
membered the  lesson,  and  are  called  upon  to  recite. 
The  teacher  requires  of  them  that  they  reproduce  what 
they  have  learned,  thus  making  of  it  a  testing  lesson. 
We  have  already  seen  that  the  lesson  should  be  a 
study  lesson,  or  a  teaching  lesson,  as  well  as  a  testing 
lesson,  although  the  test  is  the  only  thing  that  many 
teachers  attempt  to  get  from  it.  If  the  pupils  can  be 
trusted,  the  test  may  be  omitted,  and  the  study  lesson, 
whose  principal  element  is  the  perception  of  relations 
existing  between  the  ideas  that  have  been  read  and 
remembered,  may  be  adopted  as  sufficient  test ;  for 
certainly  the  pupils  cannot  state  the  relations  exist- 
ing between  different  ideas,  unless  they  know  what  the 
ideas  are. 

Advantages  of  Text-hooks. — The  text-book  recitation 
is  the  principal  form  of  teaching  employed  in  the 
schools  of  the  United  States,  and  it  will  probably  be 
a  long  time  before  any  other  is  generally  adopted. 
The  advantages  of  the  text-book  lesson  are  many  and 
great.  The  tcxt-bodk  organizes  the  subject  in  a  satis- 
factory manner;  it  selects  the  proper  kind  and  quality 
of  material :  it  furnishes  a  large  amount  of  hclpfid 
exercises,  and  it  states  directly  facts  that  may  be  util- 
ized in  teaching.  Tn  so  far  as  it  does  these  things  sat- 
jpfactorily,  it  enables  the  pupil  to  work  independently 


I 


FORMS    OF    RECITATIOX  255 

of  the  teacher,  and  so  conserves  his  energy.  Without 
a  te.\t-l)ciok.  a  hir^c  amount  of  energy  must  he  de- 
voted by  the  teacher  to  the  preparation  of  work  for  the 
pupils  to  (ko.  and  placing  it  before  them  in  such  a 
manm-r  that  they  can  proceed  to  do  it.  The  text-book 
saves  a  large  amount  of  the  teacher's  time,  which 
w^ould  otherwise  be  devoted  to  writing  on  the  black- 
board. 

AdTanta^lc  in  Doing  JVithout  Text-book. — Notwith- 
standing the  advantages  of  a  text-book,  it  is  quite  de- 
monstrable that  the  teacher  who  will  dispense  with  it 
will  do  better  teaching  than  will  one  who  depends 
largely  upon  it  in  teaching.  There  is  such  a  thing  as 
a  tjTanny  of  the  text-book,  from  which  it  is  difficult 
to  free  one's  self  and  still  use  it.  Observation  of  the 
teaching  of  classes  in  zoology,  botany,  chemistry,  and 
physics  has  led  to  the  belief  that  under  ecjually  favor- 
able circumstances,  classes  not  using  a  text-book  ex- 
celled those  that  did  u>e  it  1)\-  twenty-five  per  cent. 

Disadvantage  of  Text-books. — The  reasons  for  this 
improvement  are  several.  Xo  text-book  is  written  for 
a  particular  class,  nor  exactly  ada]:)ted  to  it.  A  text- 
book written  by  a  teacher  in  Massachusetts  may  be 
used  by  schools  in  ^[ichigan  or  in  California,  in 
schools  the  like  of  which  the  author  of  the  book  has 
never  seen.  Tt  cannot,  therefore,  be  exactly  adapted 
to  such  schools.  The  case  is  quite  as  bad  in  high 
schools.  A  university  professor,  whose  work  is  all 
advanced   work  will  not   hesitate  to  write  a  book   for 


256  PKIXCIPLF.S   OF    TEACHING 

hii;h  school  classes  sucii  as  he  has  never  had  any  ex- 
perience in  teaching-.  F.ven  for  the  elementary  schools, 
a  professor  of  mathematics  will  have  no  hesitation  in 
preparing-  a  hook  on  arithmetic.  The  lack  of  adapta- 
hility  is  a  serions  matter,  especially  in  view  of  what 
has  been  said  in  Chapter  IX  ahont  the  basis  of  interests. 
Interest  depends  upon  the  perception  of  the  relation 
of  the  thing  studied  to  ourselves.  The  problems  in 
arithmetic,  for  example,  ought  to  take  a  different  as- 
pect for  the  children  in  a  dairying  community  from 
those  that  are  employed  in  a  manufacturing  district; 
and  these  will  be  dififerent,  again,  from  those  employed 
in  a  community  devoted  to  mining  or  to  general  agri- 
culture. We  cannot  have  a  series  of  problems  that 
shall  be  merely  school  problems,  adapted  to  all  schools, 
without  divorcing  school  from  community  life  and 
lessening  the  element  of  interest.  The  school  is  an  ex- 
pression of  the  life  of  the  community,  and  the  school 
exercises  ought  to  reflect  that  life. 

Arrangement  of  Subject  Matter. — In  the  second  place, 
the  order  of  topics  in  the  book  may  not  be  that  which 
the  teacher  believes  to  be  best,  but  it  is  generally  bet- 
ter to  follow  the  order  of  the  text,  if  the  book  is  to 
be  used  at  all.  No  matter  what  arrangement  of  topics  is 
adopted  in  the  text,  the  treatment  of  all  topics  con- 
forms to  the  requirements  of  that  order.  A  topic  in 
the  text  presupposes  in  its  treatment  that  the  preced- 
ing topics  have  been  discussed :  hence,  to  rearrange  the 
topics,  demands  a  readjustment  of  the  entire  book  to 


FORMS   OF  RECITATION*  257 

tlie  new  order.  Then,  too,  the  hook  may  lay  emphasis 
upon  one  topic,  or  series  of  topics,  when  in  the  judg- 
ment of  the  teacher,  the  good  of  the  class  demands  that 
the  emphasis  be  placed  upon  another  topic,  and  the 
entire  subject  be  organized  around  that  topic,  or  series 
of  topics,  as  a  center.  In  this  way  the  text-book  may 
prevent  a  teacher's  doing  his  best  work. 

Why  Text-books  arc  Valuable.  —  Notwithstanding 
these  evident  advantages  of  doing  without  a  text- 
book, it  will  be  impossible  for  many  years  to  abandon 
its  use  to  any  considerable  extent.  The  text-book  de- 
rives its  value  very  largely  from  the  limitations  of  the 
teacher.  So  long  as  one- fourth  of  our  teachers  enter 
upon  the  work  of  teaching  every  year,  and  only  a  small 
proportion  of  them  have  had  any  special  preparation 
for  teaching";  and  so  long  as  teachers  with  little  ex- 
perience  are  called  upon  to  teach  a  variety  of  subjects 
and  conduct  a  large  number  of  classes  each  day,  the 
text-book  is  a  positive  necessity. 

Conditions  Necessary  to  do  Without  Text-hook. — 
In  order  to  teach  better  without  a  text-book  than  with 
one,  the  teacher  must  have  such  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject that  he  can  make  a  better  text-book,  for  his  own 
school  at  least,  than  the  one  with  which  his  classes  are 
furnished,  if  it  should  become  necessary  to  do  so.  Not 
a  large  number  of  our  teachers  are  scholars  of  this 
kind.  Then  the  teacher  must  have  had  experience  in 
teaching  the  same  subject  in  the  same  situation  with 
the  same  course  of  study  for  several  years,  or  he  will 


258  i'RiN('iri.i:s  oi'  ti:.\ciiing 

fail  to  make  a  satisfactory  adjustment  of  the  work. 
Since  these  conditions  do  not  generaUy  })re\ail.  we 
shall  not  soon  be  al)le  to  dispense  with  the  text-l)o()ks 
with  advantasi^e  to  the  teaching. 

Lecture  Form. — The  third  form  of  recitation  is  the 
lecttire  form.  This  is  found  especiall\'  in  colleges  and 
universities,  although  it  is  frequently  attempted  with  in- 
different success  in  high  schools,  and  even  in  the 
grades  below.  It  demands  a  class  of  students  who  are 
able  to  study  by  themselves,  and  who  have  the  ability 
to  follow  a  train  of  thought  with  considerable  accuracy. 
It  is  telling  rather  than  teaching.  It  demands  for  its 
best  result  a  considerable  knowledge  of  the  subject  on 
the  part  of  the  pupil,  and  a  large  apperceiving  basis, 
so  that  the  new  ideas  may  be  joined  promptly  to  the 
old,  and  find  their  appropriate  place  with  little  delay. 
ITence  it  is  adapted  to  only  the  most  advanced  work. 

Proper  Place  for  the  Lecture  Form. — Properly,  the 
lecturer  is  an  investigator  who  reports  in  his  lectures 
tlie  results  of  his  investigations.  He  knows  things  that 
arc  too  recently  discovered  to  have  appeared  in  the 
text-books.  The  lecture  form  permits  great  freedom 
to  the  teacher  and  enables  him  to  give  tlie  best  of  him- 
self to  his  class.  Its  disadvantages  are  that  it  makes 
I  no   imperative  demand  upon   the  pupil.     It  does  not 

contemplate  an  immediate  reproduction  of  the  lecture, 
and  no  demand  is  made  upon  the  pupil  for  thinking 
about  it.  or  perceiving  relations  between  the  ideas  ex- 
pressed.    The  lecture  is  poured  nut  over  the  class,  and 


FORMS    OF    RECITATION  259 

tliov  in;i\'  absorl)  as  much  or  as  little  of  it  as  the}-  arc 

able. 

A  Modification  of  the  Lecture  Form. — There  is  a 
kind  of  leaching-  that  closely  simulates  the  lecture 
form  williout  its  disadvantages.  In  this  form  of  recita- 
tion the  subject-matter  of  the  lesson  is  stated  orally, 
or  in  the  form  of  a  lecture,  but  the  lecture  is  expected 
to  be  reported  upon,  studied,  reproduced,  organized 
in  thought  as  a  preparation  for  reciting  upon  it.  The 
reproduction  may  be  in  writing,  or  it  may  be  merely 
thought  over.  The  lecture  constitutes  the  assignment 
of  the  lesson,  the  reproduction  in  writing  or  otherwise, 
constitutes  the  study  of  the  lesson,  and  the  recitation 
constitutes  the  test.  By  this  means  all  that  is  valu- 
able in  the  lecture  form  is  preserved  and  most  of  the  dis- 
advantages are  eliminated. 

0)ic  Advantage  of  the  Lecture. — There  is  one  ad- 
vantage peculiar  to  the  lecture  form  of  recitation  itself. 
Some  persons  are  ear-minded,  and  learn  things  more 
readily  by  hearing  than  by  seeing  them.  Such  persons 
find  the  lecture  form  a  distinct  advantage.  Other  per- 
sons are  eye-minded,  and  must  see  a  thing  before  they 
can  learn  it.  Sucli  persons  are  at  a  disadvantage  under 
the  lecture  form  of  recitation.  With  the  greater  num- 
ber of  people,  both  seeing  and  hearing  are  available  as 
means  for  learning,  hence  a  combination  of  text-book 
and  oral  instruction  is  generally  serviceable. 

Development  Recitation. — A  fourth  form  of  recita- 
tion is  the  development  lesson.    This  form  is  found  at 


260  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

its  best  in  the  German  schools,  and  is  widely  advo- 
cated in  our  own  country.  In  the  development  form 
of  recitation,  the  children  are  supposed  to  know  some- 
thing of  the  subject  to  start  with.  Using  what  the 
children  already  know  as  a  basis,  the  teacher  sets  for 
them  a  problem,  and  holds  their  attention  to  the  mat- 
ter until  they  arrive  at  its  solution.  Then  he  sets  for 
them  another  problem,  using  as  one  of  the  factors  the 
solution  that  has  been  reached  in  the  preceding  prob- 
lem. 

This  form  of  recitation  emphasizes  the  element  of 
thinking,  or  perceiving  relations,  which  we  have  seen  is 
the  element  of  greatest  deficiency  in  most  teaching. 
The  development  form  of  recitation  keeps  the  children 
thinking,  and  so  far  as  it  does  this  more  successfully 
than  other  forms,  it  is  to  be  preferred  to  them.  It  is 
almost  an  ideal  method  for  accomplishing  the  pur- 
poses for  which  it  is  adapted. 

Limitations  of  the  Development  Lesson. — It  has,  how- 
ever, like  other  forms  of  recitation,  its  serious  limita- 
tions. It  must  be  employed  by  a  skillful  teacher,  or  it 
degenerates  into  a  burlesque.  Not  all  things  are  sus- 
ceptible to  treatment  in  this  form.  It  is  admirable  for 
showing  forth  relations  existing  between  ideas,  but  it 
is  useless  for  obtaining  new  ideas.  Facts  can  seldom 
be  developed  or  treated  by  the  development  method. 
It  is  impossible  to  develop  the  facts  about  the  num- 
ber of  bones  in  the  neck  or  the  number  of  days  in 
the  week,  or  the  phonetic  value  of  ou^h  in  an  unfa- 


FORMS   OF    RECITATION'  261 

miliar  combination.  One  teacher  developed  very  skill- 
fully the  manner  in  which  seeds  were  disseminated,  us- 
ing a  banana  as  the  basis  for  the  development  lesson. 
So  a  kindergarten  teacher  developed  readily  the  fact 
that  the  pictured  rocks  along  Lake  Superior  were 
bin  Its  showing  smooth  surfaces  on  which  the  Indians 
had  painted  scenes  such  as  are  represented  in  Hiawa- 
tha. The  danger  in  depending  upon  the  development 
essons  as  a  chief  resource  is  that  so  many  things  will  be 
developed  that  are  not  so.  Inference,  reasoning,  is  at 
best  in  constant  need  of  verification  by  an  appeal  to 
facts,  or  first-hand  knowledge.  Only  where  some  neces- 
sary connection  exists  between  two  things  is  a  genuine 
development  lesson  possible. 

Question  and  Ansivcr  Method. — Leaving  now  the 
different  forms  of  recitation,  let  us  examine  the  method 
of  reciting  as  applied  to  the  individual  pupil.  The 
teacher  usually  indicates  the  place  of  beginning,  o." 
the  starting  point  on  the  mental  path  along  which  the 
pupil  must  travel,  by  a  question,  or  demand,  or  remark- 
about  the  lesson.  \\"hen  it  is  indicated  by  a  question, 
we  ha\e  the  method  of  recitation  that  is  called  the 
Question  and  Anszver  method.  This  is  the  only  method 
that  some  teachers  employ,  and  its  use  is  so  nearlv 
universal  that  there  is  great  need  to  study  it  carefully. 
It  demands  a  \-ery  considerable  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject to  ask  questions  about  it  intelligently.  It  is  quite 
as  satisfactory  a  method  of  testing  the  knowledge  of  a 
class  to  demand  that  they  ask  questions,  as  it  is  that 


J()J  PRIXCII'LES    OF    TEACHING 

they  answer  questions  already  asked.  If  a  teacher  is 
to  depend  upon  the  tpiestion  and  answer  method  for 
his  teaching-,  he  must  give  lieed  to  the  manner  oi  his 
questioning.  There  is  an  art  in  questioning.  The 
questions  should  not  ordinarily  be  leading  questions ; 
that  is,  no  part  of  the  answer  should  be  implied  in  the 
question.  Sometimes  a  teacher  will  ask  a  question  in 
such  a  way  that  the  pupil  has  a  clear  understanding 
of  what  the  answer  must  be  without  having  any  un- 
derstanding of  the  subject  at  all,  thus  encouraging  him 
to  rely  upon  help  from  the  teacher  rather  than  upon  his 
own  efforts. 

Tivo  Kinds  of  Questions. — Questions  may  be  of  two 
kinds.  It  may  be  a  question  that  demands  a  state- 
ment of  the  fact  which  the  child  is  supposed  to  know, 
or  it  may  be  a  question  that  demands  a  statement  of 
the  relation  existing  between  two  facts,  or  ideas.  The 
latter  form  of  question  is  the  higher  form,  and  is  more 
difficult  to  frame. 

Alternative  Questions. — Questions  that  may  be  an- 
swered by  yes  or  no  are  not  ordinarily  very  good  ques- 
tions, because  they  demand  little  thought  and  offer 
great  opportunities  for  guessing.  A  person  could  an- 
swer such  questions  at  random  and  be  correct  about 
half  the  time.  This,  however,  does  not  imply  that 
alternative  questions  should  never  be  asked.  Some- 
times definiteness  of  statement  demands  that  a  pupil 
should  state  an  ojMtiion  or  an  answer  by  yes  or  no. 

Definiteness  of  Questions. — Questions  must  be  definite. 


FOK-MS    OF    KliCriATIOX  263 

There  should  be  no  opportunity  for  a  pupil  to  beat 
about  the  busli  in  answering  it,  or  to  answer  by  an  ir- 
relevant statement.  There  should  be  no  unecrtainty 
about  its  meaning.  A  question  that  may  be  answered 
in  half  a  dozen  different  ways  is  not  likely  to  lead  to 
exactness  and  accuracy  of  statement  on  the  part  of  the 
pupil.  A  good  question  is  one  that  has  a  definite  part 
in  the  development  of  the  lesson. 

Questions  Represent  a  Movement  of  Thought. — A 
lesson  must  represent  a  movement  of  thought,  and  this 
movement  must  be  in  a  determined  direction.  It  must 
have  a  definite  starting  point  and  a  predetermined  aim. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  recitation  to  develop  the  train 
of  thought  from  the  starting  point  to  the  termination 
aimed  at.  Xo  question  is  good  that  leads  away  from 
the  main  thought.  The  steady  and  straight  line  of 
thought  which  the  pupil  must  follow  in  , the  develop- 
ment of  the  lesson  is  largely  determined  by  the  in- 
sight with  which  the  teacher  asks  the  questions. 
Teachers  sometimes  fail  seriously  in  this  respect. 
Sometimes  questions  are  asked  aimlessly  and  without 
any  very  definite  meaning,  apparently  for  the  purpose 
of  enabling  the  teacher  to  keep  on  talking. 

'Repetition  of  Questions. — Ordinarily,  when  the  ques- 
tion has  been  asked  once,  it  should  not  be  repeated.  If 
children  find  that  they  may  have  a  question  repeated 
as  many  times  as  they  wish,  there  will  not  be  the 
same  feeling  of  responsibility  for  hearing  the  question 
when  it  is  asked,  as  there  would  be  if  they  knew  that 


264  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

it  would  be  asked  only  once.  Each  pupil  must  feel 
an  individual  responsibility  for  hearing  the  question, 
or  it  will  be  impossible  to  maintain  the  unity  of  the 
class. 

Subsidiary  Questions. — The  starting  point  in  the  train 
of  thought  is  indicated  by  the  question  ;  but  in  order 
to  make  the  thought  clear  and  definite,  it  is  frequently 
necessary  that  the  teacher  should  ask  subsidiary  ques- 
tions to  direct  the  thought  of  the  pupil  along  the 
proper  channel.  It  is  impossible  to  plan  these  sub- 
sidiary questions  in  advance,  for  they  are  determined 
by  the  mental  location  of  the  pupil  who  is  reciting  at 
any  instant.  These  questions  are  generally  briefer, 
more  pointed,  more  definite,  and  allow  much  less  lati- 
tude in  answering  than  does  the  main  question  which 
has  started  the  train  of  thought.  It  is  not  often  wise 
to  allow  the  recitation  of  a  single  pupil  to  terminate 
with  the  answer  to  a  single  question.  The  pupil  should 
be  reciting  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  develop  the 
train  of  thought  which  a  good  question  will  suggest. 
The  teacher  who  calls  upon  twenty  pupils  to  answer 
twenty  questions  in  ten  miiuites  is  not  likely  to  be  do- 
ing very  good  teaching.  The  replies  are  not  likely  to 
constitute  such  a  sequence  of  thought  as  to  give  the 
pupils  skill  in  consecutive  thinking. 

The  Topical  Method. — But  the  teacher  is  not  limited 
to  the  question  and  answer  method  in  calling  upon 
pupils  to  recite.  The  topical  method  of  recitation,  in- 
stead of  asking  a  question,  states  a  topic  and  asks  the 


rORMS    OF    KECITATION  26o 

pupil,  who  is  designated  to  recite,  to  discuss  it;  by 
this  is  meant  that  he  shall  tell  all  he  knows  about  it  in 
the  connection  that  it  has  in  the  lesson. 

In  order  to  recite  well  upon  a  topic,  it  is  necessary 
to  analyze  it  into  its  several  parts  and  to  indicate  the 
relation  of  the  several  parts.  This  demands  a  power 
of  analysis  that  is  not  found  among  younger  pupils, 
hence  the  topical  method  is  available  for  pupils  in  the 
upper  grades  rather  than  for  those  in  the  lower.  The 
])upil  reciting  by  a  topical  method  receives  and  expects 
less  assistance  from  the  teacher  than  if  the  question 
and  answer  method  is  employed.  To  develop  a  topic 
by  means  of  questions  would  require  several  or  many 
of  them.  The  overcoming  of  the  difficulties  involved 
in  the  treatment  of  a  topic,  how^ever,  is  a  training  in 
consecutive  thinking  that  is  not  likely  to  be  obtained 
by  a  question  and  answer  method. 

The  Written  Method. — The  written  lesson  must  be 
considered  a  method  of  recitation.  Written  lessons 
are  necessary  to  induce  habits  of  clear  and  definite  ex- 
pression. Writing  makes  pupils  exact  and  careful  in 
their  statements.  When  a  paragraph  has  been  written 
and  the  pupil  reads  it  over,  he  sees  the  mistake  in 
statement  and  in  expression,  and  a  more  salutary  ef- 
fect is  derived  from  the  recognition  of  his  errors  than 
is  likely  to  come  from  an  oral  recitation.  There  is  this 
additional  advantage  in  a  written  lesson :  the  teacher 
is  able  to  make  a  direct  comparison  of  the  different 
pupils  upon  the  same  topics,  which  is  sometimes  rather 


266  rKMxcii'LES  of  teaciiixg 

a  more  satisfactory  ct)iiii)arison  llian  is  possible  when 
they  recite  oralh-  upon  different  topics.  It  has  the 
disadvantage  of  demanding  a  large  amount  of  time  on 
the  part  of  the  teacher  to  read  all  that  the  pupils  ha\e 
written.  It  is  a  question  how  much  time  the  teacher 
can  profitably  devote  to  the  reading  of  written  papers. 
This  disadvantage  is  so  serious  that  teachers  are  justi- 
fied in  minimizing  the  amount  of  written  work  as- 
signed. However,  the  written  lesson  can  never  be 
safely  dispensed  with  in  any  grade  that  involves  inde- 
pendent study  and  recitation. 

Ttl'o  Kinds  of  IJ'rittoi  Topics. — Topics  for  a  written 
lesson  may  be  made  u])on  two  plans.  In  one  plan,  the 
topics  ma\'  be  vcr\  sharp  and  pointed,  calling  for 
definite  statements  and  capable  of  being  answered  in 
a  very  liricf  manner.  This  kind  of  written  topic  has 
the  advantage  of  enabling  the  teacher  to  read  the  pa- 
pers rapidly,  and  it  enables  pupils  to  manifest  their 
knowledge  of  the  subject  in  a  definite  way.  The  other 
kind  of  topic  is  broader  and  permits  the  pupil  to  tell 
almost  everything  that  he  knows  about  the  subject 
under  consideration.  This  latter  kind  of  topic  gen- 
erally results  in  mucli  longer  papers  demanding  greater 
time  on  tlie  part  of  tlio  teacher  to  read  them. 

r/.'c  Written  R.vniiilnafioii. — .\s  a  fourth  method  of 
recitation  w  c  ma\'  consider  the  written  exann'nation. 
wliicli  is  mcrel\-  ;ni  elaboration  of  tbe  written  lesson. 
Tbe  written  exann'nalinn.  b>i\\e\i,r.  differs  fn.>ni  the 
written   lesson  usually  in  being  less   frequent,  and  cou- 


FOUMS    (W    I^F.CITA'IION  '2( )7 

sequentlv  more  formal  in  tliaracR-r.  Tt  s^enerally  has 
,^reater  emi)hasis  attached  t<>  it.  aii<l  iireater  responsi- 
bility is  fch  to  do  well  in  the  writing-.  The  topics 
usnally  cover  a  greater  range  of  the  subject,  and  some- 
times a  longer  time  is  allowed  for  it. 

Criticism  of  E.vantiuations. — Examinations  have  been 
much  decried,  and  they  are  quite  under  ban  in  manv 
schools.  It  seems,  however,  that  not  all  the  criticisms 
upon  them  are  well  founded.  The  principal  objections 
raised  to  them  are  derived  from  the  great  weight  that 
is  attached  to  them  in  their  determination  of  the  pupil's 
standing.  Sometimes  the  entire  standing  of  the  pupil 
has  depended  upon  the  examination.  This  emphasis 
placed  upon  them,  and  the  nervous  strain  developed  in 
consequence,  has  resulted  in  serious  injury  to  sonvs 
children,  w^hich  with  partial  justice  has  been  attributed 
to  the  examination. 

Compensation  of  Errors. — Another  objection  to  the 
examination  has  been  that  it  does  not  permit  the  pupil 
to  tell  all  that  he  may  know  about  the  subject.  Some 
topics  in  the  examination  may  be  just  the  things  with 
which  he  is  unacquainted,  and  the  restdt  of  the  ex- 
amination does  not  indicate  his  real  knowledge  of  the 
subject.  There  are  two  replies  to  be  made  to  this 
objection  :  One  is  that  the  application  of  the  doctrine 
of  averages  is  intended  to  correct  errors  of  this  nature. 
The  number  of  topics  stated  is  usnally  great  enough 
to  create  a  strong  probabilit}-  that  the  a\-erage  of  the 
answers  will  -Imw  the  average  knowledge  of  the  sub- 
ject. 


2(j8  principles  of  TEACHIXCI 

Examinations  Show  Poiccr  Rather  Than  Knozvledge. 
— The  second  answer  is  that  the  examination  is  not  in- 
tended to  show  the  extent  of  the  pupil's  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  but  rather  to  permit  him  to  manifest  his 
power.  It  is  designed  to  enable  him  to  show  what  he 
can  do  in  such  a  situation.  To  this  end  it  is  perfectly 
proper  to  select  topics  that  have  not  been  treated  in 
the  general  study  of  the  subject.  Instead  of  assigning 
problems  in  arthmetic  that  have  been  studied  in  the 
daily  lesson,  it  is  perfectly  reasonable  to  select  other 
problems  that  have  not  been  studied,  but  which  in- 
volve the  same  principles  as  those  which  have  been 
studied. 

Shozi'  Ability  to  Write  Clearly. — The  examination  is 
a  test  of  the  pupil's  ability  to  write  clearly  and  intelli- 
gently about  the  subject  in  hand.  A  proper  knowledge 
of  the  subject  is  a  very  desirable  preparation  for  the 
examination,  but  a  person  who  knows  a  great  deal 
about  the  subject  may  not  write  such  a  satisfactory 
examination  as  one  whose  knowledge  is  less  complete 
but  who  has  greater  facility  in  telling  what  he  knows. 
His  smaller  amount  of  knowledge  may  be  more  avail- 
able for  use.  In  such  a  case  it  is  only  a  matter  of  justice 
that  the  one  who  manifests  more  power  in  using  the 
knowledge  he  has  should  be  recognized  as  excelling 
the  one  whose  knowledge  is  greater. 

Cramntino^  for  Examination. — A  temporary  intensity 
of  study  is  called  cramming.  It  has  been  charged  that 
examination  has  a  tendency  to  lead  to  this  kind  of 


FORMS    OF    RECITATION  269 

Study.  If  the  same  intensity  of  study  were  continued 
for  a  long  time  it  would  not  be  called  cramming".  In- 
tensive stud\'  in  itself  is  a  trood  thins/  if  it  shows  the 
pupil  how  much  he  is  really  able  to  do.  It  is  desirable 
that  at  some  time  a  pupil  shall  learn  how  nuich  and 
how  hard  he  can  study.  If  examinations  produce  pres- 
sure sufficient  to  bring  out  a  consciousness  of  the  pupil's 
full  ability,  it  is  advantageous  for  that  purpose.  Awful 
examples  of  over  study  that  are  cited  as  the  result  of 
examinations  reall\-  do  occur,  but  the  probability  is 
that,  in  the  greater  number  of  such  cases,  the  injury 
is  less  attributable  to  the  examination  than  to  the  ex- 
isting condition  of  the  child,  who,  perhaps,  ought  not 
to  be  in  school  at  all.  Children  sometimes  receive  in- 
jury from  attending  school,  but  this  is  not  sufficient 
reason  for  closing  the  school  and  abandoning  the  pro- 
cesses of  education.  It  is  rather  a  demand  that  we 
shall  give  greater  attention  to  the  physical  condition  of 
children  who  are  in  attendance.  Most  of  the  over 
pressure  that  is  attributed  to  the  school  and  to  the 
examinations  comes  not  from  school  work,  but  from 
conditions  and  situations  in  no  ways  connected  with 
the  legitimate  work  of  the  school. 

Synopsis. 
1.  We  may  distinguish  the  form  of  the  recitation 
from  the  method  of  recitation ;  meaning  by  form  tlic 
management  of  the  class  as  a  whole,  while  method  may 
mean  the  management  of  the  individual  pupil  who  is 
reciting. 


270  PKIXCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

2.  W'c  may  recognize  four  different  forms  of  reeiia- 
tion ;  concert,  text-book,  lecture  aiul  development 
forms. 

,\  ^^  e  may  recognize  three  different  meil)(Kl>  of 
calling"  upon  individual  ])upil.s  to  recite ;  question  and 
answer,  topical,  written.  Examinations  may  be  classed 
with  the  written  lessons. 

4.  Since  the  question  and  answer  method  is  such 
a  common  method  of  recitation,  the  art  of  questioning 
demands  special  study. 


CHAPTER  XVI 
Sciiooi,  Discii'i.i.M-: 

Importance  of  Discipline. — There  are  two  elements 
in  seliool  work,  teaehing  and  cli.scii)line,  both  of  which 
are  absolutely  essential.  The  school  cannot  accomplish 
the  end  for  which  it  is  established  unless  the  teaching 
is  good,  and  the  teaching  cannot  be  good  unless  good 
discipline  is  maintained.  While  both  are  necessary,  in 
the  order  of  time,  good  discipline  comes  first,  for  it  is 
a  pre-re(|uisitc  to  good  teaching.  Xo  school  can  be 
well  taught,  that  is  not  well  governed.  On  the  other 
hand,  one  of  the  most  efficient  means  of  securing  good 
order  is  to  do  good  teaching.  By  means  of  the  proper 
kind  of  teaching,  a  school  can  be  governed  most  ef- 
fectivelv. 

Alorc  Important  Than  Teach ini:;. — If  it  were  possible 
to  separate  these  two  elements  and  to  have  one  of  them 
manifested  without  the  other,  it  were  better  to  ha\e  a 
school  well  governed  without  being  well  taught,  than  to 
have  it  well  taught  without  being  well  governed.  A 
child  will  receive  more  benefit,  or  less  injury,  from  at- 
tending a  school  where  the  discipline  is  good  and  the 
teaching  poor,  than  he  will  from  attending  a  school 
where  the  discipline  is  poDr  and  the  teaching  as  good 
as  the  discipline  will  permit. 

271 


272  PRIXCIPLES   OF    TEACIITXG 

Young  Teachers  Fail  in  Discipline. — Many  young 
teachers  fail  in  their  lirst  term  of  teaching,  and  such 
failures  are,  in  much  the  larger  number  of  cases,  fail- 
ures in  discipline  rather  than  in  teaching.  The  failure 
may  not  be  so  serious  as  to  lead  to  the  discharge  of 
the  teacher,  but  he  will  recognize  that  he  has  failed. 
The  children  will  whisper  and  play  and  be  idle  and 
fail  to  learn  their  lessons,  so  that  all  attempts  on  the 
part  of  the  teacher  to  teach  well  will  be  nullified  and  an 
improper  spirit  will  pervade  the  school.  The  teacher 
will  feel  that  he  could  do  good  teaching  if  the  children 
would  only  behave  and  let  him  teach,  but  the  chidren 
will  not  behave  in  the  manner  desired.  This  is  the 
situation  in  which  many  young  teachers  find  them- 
selves. 

Kind  of  Teachers  Who  Fail  in  Discipline. — In  much 
the  larger  number  of  failures  in  discipline,  the  failure 
will  be  on  the  part  of  young  teachers  who  have  been 
well-behaved  pupils  in  school  themselves.  They  have 
not  whispered  nor  thrown  paper  wads  nor  played  hookey 
nor  idled  away  their  time.  The  young  teachers  who 
ha\e  themselves  been  guilty  of  all  these  ofifenses  in 
school  are  the  persons  least  likely  to  fail  in  discipline 
in  their  first  term's  teaching.  Now  what  is  the  occa- 
sion for  this  dift'erence.  and  what  advice  shall  we  give? 
Shall  we  advise  all  young  persons  who  wish  to  teach  and 
to  take  the  greatest  precautions  against  failure  in 
discipline  to  proceed  at  once  to  become  disobedient  and 
lawless    pupils    in    school?      Evidently    such    advice    is 


SCHOOt.   DISCIPLINE  273 

dang-eroiis  in  its  character.  We  need  to  understand 
^vhat  it  is  that  enables  teachers  who  have  themselves 
been  disobedient  and  disorderly  in  school  to  maintain 
discipline  when  they  become  teachers. 

IVhv  YouHi;  Teachers  Fail. — The  difference  between 
the  two  kinds  of  teachers  is  to  be  found  in  the  fact  that 
those  who  have  been  disobedient  and  lawless  pupils  in 
school  understand  exactly  the  habits  of  thought  of  those 
children  who  constitute  the  offenders  against  school 
discipline,  while  the  teachers  who  have  been  good 
pupils  in  school  have  little  idea  how  such  oft'enders 
think  about  school  regulations,  and  fail  to  understand 
the  attitude  of  mind  which  they  maintain  toward 
school  discipline.  The  teacher  who  has  himself  some- 
time been  guilty  of  all  school  offenses  knows  how  such 
children  think  and  feel,  and  is  able  to  approach  them 
in  the  most  effective  way.  It  is  only  when  the  teacher 
comes  to  understand  the  motives  and  habits  of  thought 
of  these  disorderly  pupils  that  he  becomes  able  to  con- 
trol a  room  and  a  school.  The  first  thing,  then,  is  to 
come  to  an  understanding  of  the  way  in  which  dis- 
orderly pupils  feel  and  think.  When  such  an  under- 
standing has  been  acquired,  there  will  be  no  difficulty 
experienced  in  maintaining  discipline. 

Necessity  for  a  Clear  Idea  of  Good  Order. — This 
knowledge  of  the  mental  habits  of  children  is  the  first 
condition  for  maintaining  good  order  in  school.  The 
second  is  also  of  importance.  The  teacher  must  have 
an  adequate  notion  of  the  kind  of  behavior  which  con- 


274  I'KIXCll'LES   Oi'    'rKAClIIXG 

slitutcs  qood  order,  and  what  iiil'ractioiis  nf  discipline 
arc  likcK  lo  ncciir  in  any  scries  of  situations.  If  the 
teacher  has  an  idea  of  what  constitntes  mxxl  order,  and 
can  hold  it  clearly  hefore  his  mind,  the  children  arc 
sure  to  imitate  the  idea  that  he  hold^,  anil  to  receive 
the  stiggestion  of  good  order  from  him.  The  princijilc 
of  nncoiiscious  imitatinn  will  work  this  idea  out  into 
the  kind  of  behavior  which  the  teacher  accepts  as  his 
ideal. 

Theory  of  No  Restraint. — Here  we  are  confronted 
with  a  theory  of  discipline  in  school  wdiich  was  found 
advocates  among  some  of  the  greatest  educational 
philosophers  of  the  countr}-.  This  theory  is  that  there 
must  l)e  no  restraint  exercised  u]X)n  the  conduct  of  the 
children  in  school.  The  actions  of  the  children  must 
be  an  expression  of  their  own  characters  at  any  time, 
and  any  mode  of  behavior  which  is  in  conformity  with 
their  character,  is  a  proper  and  necessary  condition  for 
their  growth  in  school.  Hence  there  must  be  no  re- 
straint upon  behavior,  no  coercion,  no  punishment;  but 
ever\thing  that  is  natural  to  the  situations  in  which  they 
tind  themselves  placed  constitutes  proper  behavior 
and  the  school  must  adapt  its  workings  to  that 
beliavior. 

1die  result  is  not  always  in  very  close  conformity 
to  our  preconceived  notions  of  what  schoolroom  be- 
havior ought  to  be.  If  children  shout,  and  kick  each 
other  off  the  seat,  and  whack  each  other  over  the  head 
with  rulers,  it  is  not  disorder,  but  an  expression  of  their 


SCHOOL  DISCI I'Li  Mi  275 

individualities,  which  niusl  not  he  subjected  to  repres- 
siou.  Rather  it  is  the  fault  of  the  teacher  who  has  failed 
to  inspire  them  with  a  desire  to  do  those  thini;s  which 
do  not  include  as  constituent  elements  such  excrescent 
actions.  The  child  n.ui.st  be  free  to  do  these  things  in 
school  which  constitute  improper  behavior  as  well  as 
proper  behavior.  Interest  and  freedom  are  the  ke\'  words 
to  discipline,  according  to  this  theor\-.  Xo  coercion,  no 
restraint  must  be  permitted,  and  there  is  no  place  for 
punishment  in  this  scheme. 

Origin  of  Such  TJicovy. — It  is  probable  that  this 
theory  is  in  part  the  result  of  a  reaction  against  the 
1  igid  discipline  of  earlier  school  daA's,  in  which  disci- 
pline was  made  an  end  in  itself,  and  which  was  in  per- 
fect consonance  with  the  puritanical  idea  that  anything 
that  was  pleasant  was  sinful,  and  anything  unpleasant 
was  helpful  to  the  development  of  the  moral  nature. 
Behavior  was  determined  in  all  cases,  arbitraril}-,  by 
the  will  of  the  teacher,  and  there  was  a  constant  line 
of  demarcation  between  the  teacher  and  the  school. 
Hence  it  was  that  discipline  became  a  purely  artificial 
circumstance  in  the  conduct  of  the  school,  and  its  main- 
tenance meant  the  survival  of  the  fittest  in  the  stru<icrle 
between  the  teacher  and  the  pupils. 

Tlic  Good  ill  flic  Theory. — The  philosophy  underlying 
the  theory  of  discipline  under  discussion,  that  there  is 
never  any  disorder  in  school,  needs  to  be  examined. 
The  truth  that  there  is  in  it  seems  to  be  involved  in  the 
principle    of    imifatiMn.      The    teacher    who    strenuouslv 


276  I'lUXCll'LES   OF    TEAClilXG 

denies  that  there  is  disorder  in  the  room,  is  at  least  not 
giving  the  contrary  suggestion,  which  would  lead  to 
disorder.  The  teacher  who  is  expecting  good  order  is 
more  likely  to  discover  it  than  one  who  is  suspicious 
and  watchful  for  expressions  of  disorder,  and  he  is 
furnishing  a  suggestion  of  good  order  which  it  is  proh- 
able  that  the  children  will  imitate.  However,  this  kind 
of  mental  therapeutics  will  not  produce  good  order 
in  all  cases. 

The  Contrary  Theory. — But  there  is  a  deeper  mean- 
ing and  a  greater  effect  than  is  herebv  indicated  in  the 
theory.  Tlie  theory  assumes  that  the  actions  appro- 
priate to  the  present  development  of  the  children  are 
the  actions  which  constitute  good  discipline  and  good 
behavior  in  school.  The  converse  theory,  which  is  in- 
volved in  the  discussion  of  discipline  in  this  chapter, 
assumes  that  the  state  of  development  in  advance  of 
the  one  in  which  the  children  exist  at  present,  is  the 
one  to  which  the  actions  of  the  children  must  conform. 
"A  man's  reach  must  exceed  his  grasp,  or  what's  a 
Heaven  for?" 

Ideal  of  Behavior  Must  Change. — By  suggestion, 
imitation,  restraint,  the  children  must  be  moved  grad- 
ually from  the  lower  ideal  of  activity  and  behavior  to 
the  higher  ideal,  and  their  actions  must  conform  to 
this  higher  standard.  Behavior  that  is  in  accord  with 
the  lower  plane  is  not  proper  behavior,  but  proper  be- 
havior is  that  which  is  appropriate  to  the  higher  plane. 
Only  in  an  ethical  atmosphere  in   wliich  tlierc  i^  an   in- 


SCHDOI-    DISCI  I'LINI". 


277 


ducemenl  for  a  child  to  conform  to  the  higher  standard 
is  the  greatest  growth  possible.  It  is  by  this  process 
of  striving  to  conform  to  the  higher  standard  that  the 
child  grows. 

Motkc  in  Improi'ing  Behavior. — This  ethical  atmos- 
phere favorable  to  the  mental  and  moral  growth  of  the 
children  is  maintained  b\-  the  force  of  the  teacher's 
example,  by  the  general  expectation  of  the  school  and 
the  community  as  a  whole;  by  direct  commands,  and 
even  by  punishment  for  infractions,  if  such  conditions 
cannot  be  maintained  without  it.  The  suggestion  o£ 
proper  behavior  is  given  by  the  teacher's  expecting 
certain  kinds  of  conduct  to  be  manifested,  and  it  is  ex- 
tremely necessary  that  he  should  not  give  the  con- 
tradictory suggestion  of  improper  conduct.  Hence  it 
is  unwise  to  issue  pronunciamentos  forbidding  specific 
acts.  The  more  clearly  a  thing  is  forbidden,  the  more 
likely  it  is  to  work  itself  out  into  action,  not  in  conse- 
quence of  any  sense  of  depravit\-  in  the  children,  but  of 
the  psychological  lav;  that  any  idea  which  is  clearly 
presented  to  a  child's  mind  constitutes  a  motive  to 
do  the  corresponding  act. 

A  Teacher's  Ideal  of  Conduct. — A  teacher  must  set 
before  himself  a  proper  ideal  of  conduct  for  the  chil- 
dren in  all  possible  relations.  He  should  describe  for 
himself  the  proper  course  of  behavior  for  the  children 
on  the  road  to  and  from  school ;  upon  the  play  ground ; 
in  the  school  room  :  toward  school  ])roperty  ;  toward 
the   lesson ;  toward   the   teacher,   and   toward   the   other 


278  i'Ki.\(irLi:s  oi'   ri:.\(  ii  ixc. 

]m])ils.  \\'lu-ii  1k'  li;iN  dnwr  ilii>,  lie  i->  ])rc]);ii-e<l  willi 
;iii  i'lt-al  Mich  as  tlic  cliilWrcn  may  safely  iniitalc,  ami 
lie  is  prepared  tu  decide  when  an  infraction  of  dis- 
cipline has  occurred. 

Infractions  of  Discipline. — Infractions  of  discipline 
will  occur.  They  ought  to  l^e  expected  l)y  the  teacher, 
not  in  such  a  way  as  to  constitute  a  moti\e  to  the  chil- 
dren for  infringing-  discipline,  but  in  such  a  way  that 
he  may  not  lose  his  poise  when  they  do  occur.  The 
attitude  to  assume  is  one  of  expecting  the  children  to 
do  the  proper  thing,  but  not  to  be  surprised  when  the 
improper  thing  is  done  and  to  recognize  the  impulse 
from  which  it  springs. 

Condmct  Conforms  to  Stage  of  Development. — Chil- 
dren commit  infractions  of  discipline,  not  because  of 
any  inherent  character  of  total  depravity,  but  because 
they  are  in  a  lower  stage  of  development  than  is  repre- 
sented by  the  standard  of  conduct  which  the  school 
establishes.  The  school  establishes  an  ideal  which  is 
something  for  them  to  grow  up  to.  Conditions  ought 
to  be  of  such  a  nature  that  they  shall  favor  growth,  and 
so  long  as  the  child  is  growing  under  the  influence  of 
the  school,  there  is  no  reason  for  the  teacher  to  feel 
discouragement.  We  express  the  fact  that  conduct  is 
a  matter  of  development  by  saying,  sometimes,  that 
certain  of  the  younger  children  are  not  old  enough  to 
K-now  any  better.  \\'c  are  especially  discouraged  by 
the  conduct  of  some  of  the  older  children  because,  as 
\\e   say.    they   are   old    enough    to   know    belter.      These 


SCHOOL  Disciri.iM':  -~'^ 

expressions  in  tlieniselves  inij)!}  ihal  \vc  rccos^nize  llic 
element  of  growili  as  one  of  ihe  eondilions  whieh  ren- 
der a  eertain  standard  of  eonduet  appropriate  for  ever) 
child.  \\'e  may  also  acconnt  for  the  misbehavior  of 
the  older  ])ni)ils  as  examples  of  retarded  development. 
The  pupil  who  is  old  enough  to  know  l^etter  hut  whose 
eonduet  is  not  in  ctniformity  wilh  the  standards  which 
the  school  establishes  is  still  living-  in  a  stage  of  de- 
velopment, morally,  through  which  he  should  have 
passed  before  he  has  reached  his  present  age. 

Conduct  on  Road  to  ScJiool. — On  the  road  to  and 
from  school,  the  children  should  walk  promptly,  and 
should  reach  home  or  should  arrixe  at  the  school  in  a 
reasonable  time.  They  should  engage  in  proper  con- 
versation and  should  play  such  games  as  will  enable 
them  to  reach  the  home  or  the  school  promptly.  They 
sh(udd  greet  passers-by  cheerfully  and  jiolitely.  They 
should  regard  the   rights   of  property   on   all  occasions. 

Infractions  of  Discipline  on  Road  to  and  From  School. 
■ — Infractions  of  discipline  will  occur.  Children  will 
sometimes  fight  and  be  impolite  to  strangers:  they  will 
steal  apples  or  destroy  projjerty.  It  may  be  asked 
whether  the  teacher  has  any  jurisdiction  over  the  chil- 
dren after  they  ha\-e  left  the  school  premises.  There 
can  1)e  only  one  answer  to  the  question.  The  teacher 
does  have  concurrent  jurisdicl  inn  wiili  \hc  i>arent  oxer 
Ihe  cliildrrn  on  ihr  road  1f^  and  from  scliof-il.  T'onrls 
ha\e  held  thai  the  aulhority  f^f  the  teacher  o\-er  the 
children  does  not  terminate  so  long  as  the  children  of 


280  I'KINCIPLES   OF    TliACllIXG 

two  families  are  together,  and  that  the  teacher's  au- 
thority begins  as  soon  as  the  children  of  two  families 
come  together  on  the  road  to  school. 

Hoiv  Deal  With  Infractions. — When  infractions  of 
discipline  occur  on  the  road  to  and  from  school,  it  is 
always  wise  for  the  teacher  to  throw  the  responsibility 
for  determining  who  is  the  offender  upon  the  person  mak- 
ing the  complaint.  From  the  very  nature  of  the  case, 
it  is  usually  a  very  difficult  matter  for  the  teacher  to 
determine  who  the  offender  is.  Occasionally,  however, 
the  teacher  can  determine  the  offender,  and  should  deal 
with  him  directly.  If,  however,  the  teacher  is  unable 
to  determine  who  it  is,  without  calling  the  attention  of 
the  whole  school  and  the  entire  neighborhood  to  the 
offense,  it  is  usually  better  to  let  it  pass  without  com- 
ment. Advertising  an  oft'ense  suggests  its  repetition. 
The  proper  ideal  of  conduct  kept  before  the  minds  of 
the  children  will  be  found  silently  effective  in  produc- 
ing the  proper  results. 

Proper  Bchatnor  on  Playi^rouud. — On  the  playground, 
the  children  should  be  kind,  helpful,  courteous  to  their 
playmates.  They  should  engage  in  cooperative  games 
and  should  be  prompt  in  leaving  off  their  play  when 
the  sienal  is  eiven.  Infractions  of  discinlinc  are  likelv 
to  occur  on  the  playground.  It  is  in  the  freedom  of 
plav  that  children  manifest  their  state  of  development 
and  their  inherited  disposition  more  completely  than 
an v where  else.  So  serious  are  the  infractions  of  dis- 
cipline and  the  possibility  of  evil  practices  being  en- 


scuuoi-  i!i>cirLiM':  281 

gendered  upon  the  playground  that  the  al)()lition  of  re- 
cess and  the  opportunities  for  children  to  play  to- 
gether has  been  seriously  advocated.  The  very  free- 
dom which  might  permit  the  engendering  of  evil  prac- 
tices is  the  best  possible  condition  for  the  proper  de- 
velopment of  the  moral  and  social  natures  of  children. 
It  is  the  business  of  the  teacher  to  see  that  the  play- 
ground accomplishes  all  that  it  may  accomplish,  with- 
out the  evil  results  that  it  is  possible  for  it  to  have. 

Siif^cn'ision  of  the  Playground. — Unless  the  teacher 
closely  supervises  the  conduct  of  the  pupils  upon  the 
playground.  e\il  may  result:  but  if  the  teacher  is  in 
such  a  svmpaihetic  attitude  toward  the  children  that 
he  can  participate  in  their  games,  or  at  least  in  the 
games  of  some  portion  of  the  children,  in  such  a  way 
as  to  give  him  a  legitimate  place  on  the  playground,  he 
has  the  opportunity  of  making  the  most  out  of  the 
recess  period. 

IHusf ration. — A  superintendent  of  a  village  school 
organized  a  football  game  for  the  boys.  He  played 
with  them  regularly,  while  the  other  teachers  attended 
to  the  behavior  of  the  children  in  the  building.  It 
may  have  appeared  undignified,  to  many  persons,  for 
the  superintendent  to  tumble  around  on  the  ground 
with  the  lioys.  but  it  did  nn{  ap])ear  so  to  the  lK~»ys, 
and  it  furnished  him  an  opporttmity  to  be  upon  tlie 
playground  at  all  times  and  to  reconcile  any  difticulty 
that  might  arise.  Certainly  it  furnished  him  a  means 
of  obtaining  a  hold  ujion  the  school  that  would  other- 


282  I'KlXCli'LKS    UF     lliACllINt; 

\\  ise  liaxc  l)ccii  ini])(issil)le.  This  is  aliiK^sl  the  ideal 
coiuliiicni  for  the  iiianagemenl  of  the  playground. 

7'hc  Plaxi^rouiul  an  Educative  Ai^ciicy. — The  play- 
ground is  not  an  e\  il  to  be  tolerated,  nor  a  necessary 
concomitant  of  school  life,  nor  merel}-  a  means  of  re- 
cuperation from  the  fatigues  of  school  work.  It  is  a 
vitalizing,  educative  force  in  the  experience  of  the 
children,  and  ought  lu  be  so  regarded.  The  summer 
playgrounds  instituted  by  the  school  boards  in  many 
cities  are  wisely  considered  as  a  legitimate  feature  of 
public  school  education. 

Tzco  Playground  Ideals. — There  are  two  ideals  mani- 
fested on  the  playgrounds  in  the  schools  of  the  United 
States.  One  is  the  ("icrnian  ideal,  which  indicates  that 
all  games  and  ])lays  of  children  shall  be  supervised  and 
played  according  to  the  direction  of  the  teacher.  Such 
games  are  to  be  selected  as  will  contribute  most  to 
the  development  of  the  physical  child.  The  other  we 
may  call  the  English  ideal,  which  allows  the  utmost 
freedom  of  choice  and  of  conduct  to  the  children  them- 
selves. It  would  seem  that  the  playground  accom- 
plishes what  it  may  accomplish  only  when  there  is 
that  perfect  freedom  which  is  indicated  l)y  the  English 
system  of  ])lay.  Perhaps  it  is  not  too  much  to  say 
that,  according  to  the  English  system,  the  ]ilavground 
is  tnore  beneficial  to  ihe  ])Ui)ils  than  is  the  rest  of  the 
school.  Not  nearly  so  high  an  opinion  can  he  niain- 
lained  of  the  ( lermau  playground,  directed  b\  anthor- 
ify.  The  teacher,  if  iio^sible.  should  participate  in  the 
games  (i{  tlie  children,  lie  slumld  not  direct  lliem. 


SC 1 1  ( i( ; 


DISC  II '1. INF.  283 


Bi'lutrior  I'oicanI  Sclioul  I'n'l'i-rly. — The  relation  of 
the  ehiUh-eii  Idward  scliixil  proiJi-Tt}  is  that  ui  a  Iriislee. 
Tliey  should  be  earel'ul  to  leave  it  in  as  gcK)d  order  as 
thev  find  it,  and  this  is  the  ideal  of  conduct  held  con- 
stantly before  the  minds  of  the  children.  If  the  furni- 
ttn-e  is  nicely  finished,  or  new  and  elegant  in  api)ear- 
ance,  it  is  much  more  likely  to  be  preserved  in  an  un- 
injured condition  than  if  it  is  rough  and  unfinished. 
The  child  unconsciously  imitates  in  his  attitude  toward 
school  furnishing  the  ideal  which  it  expresses.  Hence 
the  better  the  equipment,  the  greater  efifect  it  will  have 
in  developing  in  the  mind  of  the  child  that  attitude 
which  makes  the  integrity  of  the  school  property  secure. 
Rough,  unfinished  furniture  and  school  appointments 
express  a  low  ideal  of  the  community,  and  this  ideal 
is  reflected  in  the  manner  in  which  the  property  is 
cared  for  by  the  pupils. 

Infractions  of  Discipline  Toz^'ard  School  Property. — 
Infractions  of  discii^line  are  very  likely  to  occur.  Children 
will  break  window  glass  and  scratch  desks  and  make 
pencil  marks  on  the  wall.  When  the  offender  can  be 
determined,  that  oft'ender.  for  his  own  sake,  must 
repair  the  injury  that  he  has  done.  But  if  he  cannot 
be  determined,  then  it  is  necessary  that  the  teacher 
shall  cause  the  injur}-  to  be  repaired,  and  the  sooner 
the  repair  is  made  the  better.  One  defacement  imme- 
diately suggests  another,  hence  the  sooner  it  i^  removed 
the  less  likelihood  of  evil  imitation. 

Ho7i'  Deal  IVitli  Infractions. — P.y  a  judicious  method 


284  l'KI.\i:i}'LES   ()]•     lEACHIXG 

oi  procedure,  tlic  injury  that  is  done  to  school  prop- 
erty may  be  made  tlie  means  of  inculcating  the  proper 
attitude  toward  property,  and  isolating"  the  offender. 
If  a  committee  is  enlisted  who  shall  take  care  to  efface 
all  marks  that  have  been  wrongfully  put  upon  school 
property,  in  cases  where  the  offender  cannot  be  de- 
termined, a  strong  force  will  exist  among  the  pupils 
themselves  in  favor  of  maintaining  the  integrity  of 
the  property.  By  proper  care,  a  stronger  sentiment 
may  be  cultivated  in  preserving  the  property  than  if 
no  infractions  had  ever  occurred.  But  the  oft"ender, 
whenever  he  can  be  discovered,  must  be  required  to 
repair  all  injury  done. 

Proper  Behavior  Tozvard  the  ScJiool. — The  attitude 
of  the  pupil  toward  the  school  as  a  whole  needs  to  be 
considered.  In  school,  the  pupil  should  be  studious, 
quiet,  self-contained.  The  school  must  be  a  unit  in 
the  fact  that  each  pupil  is  tr}ing  to  learn  his  own  les- 
son at  the  same  time  that  he  is  making  favorable  con- 
ditions  for  other  pupils  to  learn  their  lessons. 

Iiifraetioiis  of  Discipline  Toward  the  ScJiool. — Infrac- 
tions of  discipline  are  very  likely  to  occur  in  respect  to 
this  relation.  School  conditions  are  quite  far  removed 
from  the  ancestral  experiences  of  the  race,  and  the 
nervous  system  of  the  child  has  to  be  adjusted  to  them 
with  little  assistance  from  heredity.  The  unity  may 
be  destroyed  by  whispering,  throwing  paper  w^ads, 
writing  notes,  doing  a  thousand  different  things  that 
disturb  the  atmosphere  of  study. 


SCUUUL    DJSCU'LIM':  285 

Dcstnvction  of  L'liity. — The  pupil  who  throws  a  paper 
wad  destroys  the  unity  that  <>ui;ht  to  l)e  maintained. 
He  sets  hmiselt  apart  from  the  rest  of  the  sehool  by  his 
own  aet,  and  it  is  the  business  of  the  teaeher  to  see 
that   the  rest  of  the  pu])ils  take  note  of  this   isolation. 

Isolation  of  the  Offender. — This  prineiple  of  the 
isolation  of  the  offender  is  the  most  important  i)rinciple 
in  school  government.  W'lien  a  paper  wad  goes  across 
the  room,  it  is  highly  injudicious  for  the  teacher  to 
propound  the  general  intpiiry  "Who  threw  that  ])aper 
wad?"  The  effect  of  such  an  inquiry  is  not  oul}-  fail- 
ure to  isolate  the  oft'ender.  but  it  furnishes  him  with 
many  associates.  Every  child  in  the  room  feels  that  he 
is  in  position  to  be  suspected,  and  is  at  once  thrown 
on  the  defensive.  He  becomes  an  associate  with  the 
offender  in  the  broken  unity  of  the  school.  The  unity 
is  broken,  although  l)y  the  injudicious  inquiry  of  the 
teacher  the  line  of  fracture  runs,  not  between  the  of- 
fender and  the  rest  of  the  school,  including  the  teacher, 
but  between  the  teacher  and  the  rest  of  the  school,  in- 
cluding the  oft'ender.  It  is  the  teacher  who  becomes 
isolated,  and  not  the  offender.  If  the  teacher  does  not 
know  who  threw  the  wad.  it  is  better  to  say  nothing 
about  it.  Another  wad  may  come  soon  and  the  of- 
fender be  detected.  If  it  does  not  come,  and  the  of- 
fense is  not  repeated,  there  is  no  reason  why  any- 
thing should  be  said  about  it. 

DcaJiiii;;  With  the  Indi^'idual. — It  is  this  dealing  with 
ihr    individual    th;'!    i-    the   keynote    f"   .'dl    prucesses    of 


286  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

good  discipline.  It  is  very  rarely  that  an  attempt 
should  be  made  to  include  a  whole  room  or  a  whole 
school  in  a  sweeping  condemnation.  There  is  no  util- 
ity in  issuing  general  conunands  lor  order  or  disci- 
pline or  quiet.  It  is  not  the  severity  of  punishment, 
but  the  process  of  isolation,  by  which  the  force  of 
public  opinion  is  rendered  efi'ective,  which  will  prove 
the  most  efficient  means  of  preventing  disorder.  It  is 
not  even  necessary  that  extraordinary  precision  shall 
be  attained  in  selecting  the  individual  most  seriously 
involved  in  in  fractious  of  <liscipline. 

Proper  BclniTor  Tirward  the  Fcachcr. — Toward  the 
teacher,  the  pupil  should  be  respectful,  obedient,  cour- 
teous and  considerate.  Infractions  of  discipline  in  this 
respect  may  occur.  The  pu])il  may  be  disobedient  and 
disrespectful.  The  proper  attitude  for  the  teacher  to 
maintain  in  such  a  situation  is  one  that  leads  him  to 
act  in  such  a  manner  Unit  the  jjupil  will  feel  that  the 
teacher  is  actuated  by  good  motives  toward  him.  The 
teacher  must  be  such  a  person  that  the  pu])il  will  ad- 
mire him,  and  one  who  will  furnish  good  models  for 
imitation.  L^nless  the  teacher  is  truthful,  honest, 
])rompt  in  all  his  actions,  the  pupils  will  be  found  lack- 
mg  in  the  proper  kind  of  respect  for  liim  to  make  dis- 
cipline easy.  Threatening,  or  ungentlemauly  conduct 
will  inevitably  result  in  weakening  tlie  rcs]iect  of  the 
pupil  for  the  teacher,  and  disrespectful  conduct,  con- 
stituting an  infraction  of  discipline,  is  certain  to  occur. 
Townnl    offcMisc^s   of   lliis    n.'iluvr.    ;iii    imi>rrson;il    allilnde 


I 


SCHOOL  DISCI  I 'MM'.  287 

is  always  the  iiiosi   c  ri\'rli\  c,  and   is  rcail}'  llu'  t>nv  to 
wliirli  tlu'  tracluT  is  limilcd. 

I'riif'iT  In-luriiiir  Tm^urd  Ollirr  /'iipils. — Towarils  tiic 
oIIkt  ])Ui)ils  ill  llic  school,  \\\v  \)U])'\\  ^lioulcl  he  i)()lilc, 
iiiK  )l)lnisi\c,  liclpluL  Infractions  of  (liscii)linc  in  this 
i"c>i)cct  nUcV  come  from  a  (Hspositit^n  on  the  part  of 
some  ]nipils  to  he  idle,  and  to  (h-aw  others  \utn  their 
idleness.  The  principal  difficulty  with  such  infrac- 
tions of  discipline  is  that  the  injured  party  is  likely  to 
consent  to  the  injury,  and  to  league  himself  with  the 
offender.  Isolation  of  the  offender  is  here  the  only  re- 
source, together  witli  an  insistent  demand  that  the 
pupil  shall  learn  his  lessons  and  shall  recite  well.  Ad- 
ditional lessons,  extra  work,  imposed  as  a  task  mav 
sometimes  be  justified  as  a  consequence  of  tliis  kind  of 
infradtions  of  discipline,  although  the  vcrv  conditons 
that  lead  to  infractions  of  discipline  for  which  this 
method  of  procedure  is  a  consequential  punishment  are 
likely  to  be  such  as  to  nullify  its  value.  It  is  likely  to 
he  employed  with  profit  in  a  ver\-  few  cases  only. 
Such  ca>es  are  those  in  which  the  infraction  of  disci- 
pline comes  as  a  result  of  too  little  work  assigned,  or 
ability  of  the  pupil  to  do  more  work  than  the  average 
of  the  class  for  whom  the  lesson  has  been  planned. 

Proffer  Behavior  Tozvard  Lessons. — In  his  relation 
toward  the  studies  of  the  school  and  the  lessons  as- 
signed, the  pupil  should  be  ready  to  study  his  lessons 
well,  to  recite  promptly,  and  to  do  the  exercises  as- 
signed   to    him.      Infractions    of    discipline    in    this    re- 


288  pRiNCirLRe^  of  teachixg 

f^pect  are  likely  to  be  more  frequent  than  in  any  other. 
In  fact,  success  in  avoidinf^  such  infractions  practically 
means  success  in  avoidini;  all  others,  and  success  in 
maintainino-  discipline  with  reference  to  these  matters 
implies  facility  in  maintaininii:  discipline  in  every  other 
respect.  I'his  attitude  of  the  pupil  toward  the  studies 
of  the  daily  program  is  not  often  called  discipline,  and 
yet  it  is  the  most  essential  element  in  maintaining 
discipline  in  every  other  respect. 

Hoxi'  Secure  Proper  Study. — If  the  pupil  does  not 
learn  his  lessons  well,  it  is  necessary  for  the  teacher  to 
hold  him  to  account  more  strictly  than  usual.  The  as- 
signment mav  be  more  than  usually  definite  and  more 
carefully  made.  The  lesson  should  partake  more  of  the 
nature  of  the  test,  and  sometimes  it  may  be  be  of  a  more 
formal  character,  perhaps  even  the  committing  of 
some  portions  of  the  text  to  memory.  Good  teaching 
IS  here  imperative.  A  pupil  or  a  class  who  learn  their 
lessons  well  are  not  likely  to  be  very  difficult  to  man- 
age in  any  other  respect. 

Synopsis. 

1.  The  most  important  condition  for  the  mainten- 
ance of  discipline  is  a  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher  how  troublesome  pupils  feel  and  think.  An  un- 
derstanding of  the  mental  attitude  of  pu])ils  leads  to 
good  discipline. 

2.  The  kind  of  l)chavior  which  is  desired  should  be 
verv  dcfinitelv  in  the  mind  of  the  teacher.     Such  an 


» 


«;cii()()i.  mscii'i.i xi-:  289 

idea  will  ncccssarih  liiid  e.\])rcssi()n  in  all  the  actions 
of  the  teacher,  w  hull  will  snt^s^cst  it  t<i  the  children, 
and  snch  idea  will  con^tilnte  the  motive  leading-  to  the 
jiroper  behavior. 

.-).  The  first  princijjle  of  discijiline  is  to  deal  with 
Uie  individual  ofTender,  to  maintain  the  unity  of  the 
school ;  and  when  the  unity  is  broken  b_\  the  action 
of  a  pupil,  to  recognize  that  the  line  of  fracture  runs 
between  the  offender  and  the  rest  of  the  school. 

4.  Good  teaching  is  necessary  in  securing  good 
discipline. 


CirATnT.U   X\TI 

l\l()Ti\i:s  IN  Sciiooi. 

Three  Kinds  of  Motrees. — We  may  discover  three 
different  conditions  that  determine  the  actions  of  children, 
and  perhaps  these  three  may  not  be  an  exhaustive  hst. 
They  enter  into  the  actions  of  children  in  varying  pro- 
portions, and  it  is  difficult  to  determine  just  how  much 
any  one  action  is  attributable  to  each.  These  three  condi- 
tions are  first,  the  nature  of  the  child  at  any  particular 
time,  including"  in  this  his  entire  hcredit_\ ,  together  with 
the  stage  of  development  which  he  has  reached;  second, 
the  ethical  atmosphere  in  which  he  is  placed;  third,  his 
interest  at  the  time  indicated. 

The  Nature  of  the  Child. — We  have  seen  in  Chapter 
VII  that  the  child  passes  through  various  stages  which 
correspond  to  states  in  the  development  of  the  race. 
At  one  time  the  child  is  in  a  stage  corre- 
sponding to  the  savage  state  of  the  race,  and  at 
another  time  he  is  in  the  stage  corresponding  to  the  state 
of  ])rimitivc  barbarism,  and  his  actions  are  such  as  belong 
to  that  condition  of  development.  Every  one  recognizes 
that  the  child  of  four  years  of  age  behaves  dift'erently 
from  the  child  of  six.  and  that  the  actions  of  a  child  of 
six  var\'   \\idel\-   from  those  of  one  of  ten.     Each  age 

290 


.M()TlVi:S    I.\     SCJIDOL  iUl 

has  a  course  of  behavior  which  is  ap]n-opriatc  to  it,  and 
any  variation  from  that  method  of  acting  must  be  con- 
sidered abnormal. 

Hoic  Account  for  Stcaliiii^. — Some  children  will  steal. 
They  will  appropriate  the  property  of  another  and  a])ply 
it  to  their  own  uses.  \\'e  call  such  actions  stealing,  and 
say  that  a  person  who  behaves  in  this  manner  is  a  thief. 
But  it  will  be  said  at  once  that  such  a  term  is  too  harsh 
to  apply  to  a  child  of  four  or  six  years,  although  it  may 
be  applied  with  justice  to  the  similar  actions  of  a  child 
of  ten  or  fifteen  years.  This  is  a  recognition  of  the 
fact  that  such  acts  of  apjiropriation  are  to  l^e  expected 
in  a  child  of  four  or  six,  but  not  in  a  child  of  greater  age. 
The  action  is  the  same,  but  in  a  child  of  four  we  expect 
it,  while  in  a  child  of  ten  or  fifteen  we  do  not.  We 
recognize  that  the  child  of  four  is  still  in  the  stage  of 
development  to  which  stealing  is  a]ii^ropriate,  and  has 
not  yet  reached  the  stage  in  which  a  regard  for  the  rights 
of  property  and  the  recognition  of  it  as  an  institution  has 
become  established. 

Age  When  Stealing  Ought  to  Cease. — It  is  difficult 
to  determine  in  years,  just  the  time  at  which  a  child 
should  have  passed  through  this  stage  and  become  so 
that  he  will  not  steal,  but  usually  he  should  have  passed 
it  bv  the  time  he  has  reached  the  age  of  eight  years,  or 
even  seven.  When  children  have  not  outgrown  this  pro- 
pensity at  eight  years  of  age,  we  may  regard  them  as  ex- 
amples of  retarded  development.  They  have  not  devel- 
oped according  to  the  course  manifested  by  the  greater 


292  PRINCIPLES  OF    TEACHING 

number  of  children.  Nearly  all  cases  of  criminal  actions 
that  occur  in  school  are  most  satisfactorily  explained  b}' 
assuming  that  they  are  examples  of  retarded  development. 
In  fact,  the  only  satisfactory  way  of  looking  at  crime 
is  to  regard  it  as  the  result  of  arrested  development,  or. 
in  some  cases  of  crime  among  adults,  of  degeneration. 

Stealing  an  Indication  of  Retarded  Development. — It 
is  not  at  all  unusual  to  find  in  a  school,  such  examples 
of  retarded  development.  Perhaps  among  children  of 
high  school  age,  it  is  not  too  much  to  expect  that  one  or 
two  pupils  in  a  class  of  fifty  will  manifest  this  form  of 
retarded  development.  In  fift}'  children  of  a  younger  age. 
the  number  will,  in  all  probability,  be  greater.  Children 
will  steal  pencils,  copy-books,  text-books,  playthings,  some 
articles  of  clothing,  or  even  money.  Nearly  all  children 
grow  out  of  this  condition  and  become  honest  and  trust- 
worthv  members  of  society  :  but  some  remain  permanently 
in  an  undeveloped  state,  and  then  they  become  known  as 
thieves,  or  kleptomaniacs. 

Lying  an  Indication  of  Retarded  Development. — What 
has  been  said  about  stealing,  apjilics  with  little  change  to 
all  forms  of  moral  obliquity  which  we  find  in  school. 
Lving  is  a  vice  indicative  of  an  undeveloped  condition. 
It  is  a  manifestation  of  retarded  development  whenever 
we  see  it  in  children  above  a  certain  age.  It  is  difficult 
to  determine  when  a  child  is  old  enough  io  have  ceased 
to  lie  and  to  have  become  able  to  tell  the  truth,  because 
children  vary  greatly  in  this  respect.  If  children  in  the 
fourth   orade  lie.  deliberntc1\-   ruid   willfnlh.   wo  u\:\\   lie 


.\ii)ii\i:s  1  x   sciiDdi,  293 

sale  ill  sa\  inj;'  llial  tlu'lr  moral  ,L;r<i\\lli  lia>  1)ccoiih'  re- 
tarded, if  iioi  arretted.  Somelimo  litllc  children  lie 
because  llie\'  are  unable  to  dislingui.sb  an  idea  from  a 
percept.  The  idea  becomes  as  vivid  as  a  percept,  and 
they  experience  a  real  hallucination.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, usually  later  than  this  period,  the  lies  of  childhood 
are  adopted  as  a  refuge  of  weakness.  Courage,  which  is 
an  altruistic  feeling,  has  not  been  sufficiently  developed 
to  enable  them  to  tell  the  truth,  when  it  puts  them  into 
danger  of  an  uncomfortable  situation.  As  the  child  de- 
velops physically,  mentally  and  socially,  his  moral  nature 
develops  also ;  he  ceases  to  lie  and  becomes  able  to  tell 
the  truth  in  all  situations.  Some  people  never  pass  this 
stage  of  development,  but  remain  forever  in  a  stage  of 
which  lying  is  a  characteristic  expression. 

Cheating  an  Indication  of  Retarded  Development. — 
Cheating  is  another  vice  exhibited  in  the  schoolroom. 
Some  pupils  cheat  in  examinations.  They  obtain  infor- 
mation in  ways  not  countenanced  by  the  rules  of  the 
school,  and  which  are  not  in  conformity  with  the  prin- 
ciples of  moral  conduct.  They  will  cheat  in  examinations, 
and  in  their  daily  recitations.  They  will  read  their  Latin 
lessons  with  a  pony,  or  solve  their  problems  with  a  key 
or  by  other  illegitimate  means.  All  of  these,  and  other 
forms  of  cheating  are  manifestations  of  this  undeveloped 
moral  character  in  various  wavs  and  in  varving  degrees. 

OtJuv  Sclwol  J  Ices. — Lying,  cheating  and  stealing 
are  three  school  vices  most  sharply  distinguished  as  such. 
Others  occupy  a  less  conspicuous  position,  although  not 


294  |-R1.\.CIPLKS   OF     ll^AClil.NC, 

less  ccrlainlv  iiulicaiive  of  tlu-  same  undeveloped  condi- 
tion. 

Dcsiniclion  of  i)ro])erly.  ^aniljling-,  swearini;.  cii^areUc 
smoking-,  tobacco  chewing  arc  sometmies  found.  All  of 
these  mav  be  classed  in  the  category  of  school  vices,  and 
all  are  more  or  less  closely  related  to  each  other.  They 
represent,  however,  diiTerent  stages  of  development,  and 
according  to  the  stages  which  they  represent,  some  are 
more  tolerated  in  society  outside  of  school  than  are 
others. 

Bad  Behavior  Noticeable  Because  E.vceptioiial. — We 
have  already  indicated  these  several  school  vices  as  ex- 
amples of  behavior  dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the 
child  at  the  particular  time  when  the  actions  occur. 
The  actions  that  constitute  good  behavior  depend  also 
upon  the  nature  of  the  child,  but  the  actions  constituting 
bad  behavior  are  the  more  noticeable  because  they  are 
the  exceptional  and  the  unusual.  We  have  selected  these 
exceptional  actions  as  illustrations  of  the  general  rule, 
rather  than  the  usual  actions,  because  they  are  the  more 
conspicuous   in   consequence  of  being   exceptional. 

Exceptional  mictions  Best  to  1 11  list  rale  the  Opera- 
tion of  a  Sini:;Je  Factor. — There  is  another  reason  for 
selecting  the  exceiitional  actions  as  examples  of  those 
which  are  determined  by  the  nature  of  the  child.  No 
action  is  determined  absolutely  by  one  factor,  but  every 
action  is  tlie  resultant  of  several  factors  working  to- 
gether. Tn  case  of  the  ordinary,  non-exceptional  action, 
we  shall  find  all  the   factors  entering  into  the  motive  in 


their  ordinan'  proportion,  aiul  coiUril)utin<;'  to  it  in 
their  ustial  deg'rec.  lUu  the  exceptional  action  is  Hkely 
to  be  more  completely  determined  by  one  factor  than 
by  another.  Hence  \vc  can  see  in  the  exceptional  action 
the  inflnence  of  a  single  factor  more  clearly  manifested 
than  we  can  in  the  usnal  action.  In  case  of  these  school 
vices,  it  is  the  factor  of  child  nature  that  is  most 
clearly  manifested.  These  exceptional  actions,  which 
we  call  school  vices,  result  from  the  nature  of  the 
child,  rather  tlian  from  tlie  influence  of  the  other  factors 
determining-  liehavior,  which  are  usually  opposed  to 
them. 

Tlic  Ethical  AtniospJicrc. — Another  factor  wdiich  de- 
termines the  actions  of  the  child  at  any  time  is  the 
ethical  atmosphere  in  which  he  lives.  By  ethical  atmos- 
phere we  shall  mean  the  sum  of  all  the  suggestions  that 
reach  the  child  from  the  teacher,  from  his  playmates, 
from  his  home  influences,  as  well  as  from  the  force  of 
habits  which  he  has  already  formed.  Every  school  and 
every  school-room  has  its  own  standard  of  conduct ; 
and  anv  action  of  anv  child  which  is  in  conformitv  with 
that  standard  is  usual  and  expected,  and  excites  no  at- 
tention or  comment.  Any  kind  of  action  which  does 
not  conform  to  that  standard  is  exceptional,  unexpected, 
and  does  excite  comment.  This  ex]:)ectation  and  com- 
ment, this  kn(n\lcdgc  ou  the  i»art  of  tlic  cliild  tliat  lu-  i^ 
expected  by  the  teacher  and  lln'  ]iupils  to  act  in  a  cer- 
tain wav,  and  to  conl'(jrni  to  that  standard  of  contluct, 
exercises    a    strong    influence    upon    his    actions.      It    is 


296  I'Rixc  ii'Liis  OF  ti:aciiixg 

this  expectation  and  knowledge  of  the  standard  that 
constitntes  what  we  may  call  the  ethical  atmosphere  in 
which  the  child  lives. 

Force  of  Public  Opinion. — The  agency  throngh  which 
the  inflnence  of  the  ethical  atmosphere  is  exercised 
is  the  force  of  public  opinion.  It  is  the  strongest  force 
in  school  government,  and  the  teacher  in  order  to  govern 
a  school  successfully  must  cultivate  it  assiduously.  In 
some  schools  this  force  of  public  opinion  is  organized 
into  an  institution  and  we  have  what  is  called  pupil- 
government,  or  self-government.  Where  it  is  employed 
skillfully,  this  pupil-government  may  become  very  suc- 
cessful :  but  it  is  not  a  new  element  in  school  discipline, 
but  merely  a  device  for  rendering  public  opinion  ef- 
fective. 

Origin  of  the  Ethical  Atmosphere. — The  ethical  at- 
mosphere must  originate  in  the  first  place  with  the 
teacher.  The  teacher  holds  clearly  before  his  own 
mind  an  idea  of  a  high  standard  of  behavior  and  ever}- 
action  that  he  performs,  every  request  that  he  makes, 
every  regulation  in  school  is  a  suggestion  to  the  pupil 
of  the  standard  of  conduct.  The  jxipils  acquire  the  same 
idea  of  behavior  and  it  works  itself  out  in  their  actions. 
They  adopt  approximately  the  same  standard  and  con- 
form more  or  less  closely  to  it.  When  infractions  of 
discipline  occur,  the  offender  has  broken  tlie  unity  l)e- 
tween  himself  and.  die  rt'<(  of  ihe  scliodl.  and  it  is  the 
business  of  tlic  teacher  \n  make  this  separation  apjjarent. 
This  is  the  principal  function  of  punishment,  which  fid- 


MOXniiS  IX    SCHOOL  297 

fills  its  purpose  best  when  it  has  rendered  the  offender 
vuipleasantly  conspicuous. 

The  Fumtion  of  Pitnisliiiiciif. — Such  has  not  always 
been  considered  the  function  of  punishment.  Punish- 
ment has  been  assumed  to  be  the  meting  out  of  justice 
to  an  offender,  although  it  would  be,  perhaps,  more 
nearly  true,  though  less  euphemistic,  to  say  that  it  was 
for  the  purpose  of  revenge.  ^Ir.  Keith  thinks  we  may 
trace  it  farther  back  than  this.  He  thinks  that  punish- 
ment W'as  allied  to  the  methods  of  treatment  adopted 
in  cases  of  demoniacal  possession.  In  the  savage  state. 
a  man  who  was  sick  or  insane  or  a  very  great  criminal 
was  supposed  to  be  suffering  from  the  possession  of  a 
demon,  which  had  taken  up  its  habitation  in  the  body 
of  the  man.  The  demon  must  be  exorcised,  or  driven  out, 
and  this  was  usually  done  by  making  his  habitation  such 
an  unpleasant  place  for  him  that  he  left  the  body  of  the 
patient  and  went  elsewhere.  So  in  order  to  expel  the 
demon  of  mischief,  or  misbehavior,  the  pupil  was 
whipped  to  cause  him  pain,  and  to  expel  the  demon.  It 
is  needless  to  say  that  such  a  theory  of  punishment,  no 
matter  how  satisfactciry  it  might  seem  to  be  in  particular 
cases,  is  not  at  all  in  harmony  with  our  present  knowdedge 
of  child  natm-e.  Punishment  serves  its  purpose  best 
when  it  makes  the  oft'ender  unpleasantly  conspicuous, 
thus  giving  recognition  lo  the  fact  that  there  is  a  break- 
ing of  the  unit\  between  the  cffendrr  and  the  ve-1  nf 
the  school. 

Error  in  ^Ip plication  of  flic  Principle. — The  teacher 


298  PRINCIPLES   01'    TEACHIiXG 

may  fail  to  draw  the  line  in  the  proper  way.  In  order 
to  draw  the  line  of  separation  around  the  oiiender,  the 
teacher  must  deal  with  the  individual,  and  not  with  a 
group  or  with  the  school  as  a  whole.  If  the  teacher 
undertakes  to  include  in  his  condemnation  of  an  action, 
a  whole  room,  or  an  entire  class  by  general  statement, 
or  by  direct  charge,  or  even  by  an  inquiry,  as  in  the 
case  supposed  in  the  preceding  chapter,  he  draws  the 
line  between  himself  and  the  rest  of  the  school.  He 
isolates  himself,  instead  of  isolating  the  offender.  He 
associates  others  with  the  ofifender,  which  is  the  thing 
that  the  ofifender  most  desires.  By  dealing  directly  with 
the  individual  ofifender.  the  teacher  avoids  the  common 
mistake  of  drawing  the  line  of  separation  in  the  wrong 
place.  There  is  no  other  principle  of  school  govern- 
ment so  important  as  this,  and  perhaps  none  that  is 
so  frequently  violated.  By  dealing  directly  with  the 
individual,  the  teacher  is  able  to  maintain  the  unity  be- 
tween himself  and  the  rest  of  the  school,  and  to  show 
that  the  ofifender  has  excluded  himself  from  this  unity. 

Getting  Children  on  Our  Side. — Teachers  have  a 
way  of  expressing  this  fact  by  saying  that  they  wish  to 
have  the  pupils  on  their  side.  This  is  a  crude  way  of 
expressing  an  important  truth.  It  means  that  they  re- 
cognize a  necessity  for  the  maintenance  of  unity.  It 
means  that  the  line  of  separation  is  drawn  so  as  to 
isolate  the  ofifender.  and  tn  recognize  that  the  unity  is 
broken  between  the  ofii'ender  and  the  rest  of  the  school. 

Weakness   of  Deportiiieiilitl   lustnicfion. — In   oppor- 


\i(iri\i:s  IN   siiiiiiii,  299 

tunities  for  dealiiiL;  wilh  ihc  iiulividual  in  such  a  way  as 
to  establish  and  maintain  the  nnity  between  teacher  and 
])ui)il.  the  line  who  teaches  the  same  chiss  ah  da}-  in 
several  subjects  has  an  advantage  over  one  who  teaches 
many  children  in  only  one  subject  for  a  short  time  each 
day.  A  teacher  must  h.ave  an  unusual  strength  of  per- 
sonality to  make  a  vivid  impression  upon  a  class  of 
children  with  whom  he  comes  into  contact  only  one 
hour  each  clay.  It  is  this  fact  which  constitutes  the  princi- 
pal weakness  of  the  departmental  method  of  instruc- 
tion. The  departmental  teacher  is  very  likely  to  teach 
the  subject  rather  than  to  teach  the  children. 

Effective  Methods  of  Discipline. — We  have  now  the 
principle  to  appl}'  in  cases  of  disorder  or  school  crimes. 
In  cases  of  stealing,  the  diflficulty  of  detecting  the  of- 
fender is  very  great,  and  when  he  is  detected,  what  can 
he  done?  It  may  be  assumed  that  such  a  person  should 
be  expelled  from  school ;  but  when  that  is  done,  we  de- 
prive the  thief  of  the  very  best  opportunity  that  he  will 
ever  have  of  growing  past  the  undeveloped  condition 
which,  permits  him  to  steal.  There  is  little  danger  that 
others  will  be  affected  b\-  his  presence,  and  from  his  ex- 
ample learn  to  steal.  Their  moral  natures  are  not  likely  to 
sufifer.  since  most  of  the  children  have  already  passed 
the  point  of  development  that  permits  them  to  steal,  and 
degeneration  is  not  likel\'  to  affect  yoimg  children.  There 
is  little  opportunity  for  dealing  with  the  individual  of- 
fender, but  in  cases  where  it  may  be  done,  harsh  meas- 
ures   are  not    likely   to   accomplish  the  result  which  we 


300  i'Ki.\tii'i.i:s  di'    ii'.AcniNC 

(lr>irc.  I  he  mo^l  (.■f(ccti\'e  (K-vice  is  lo  iiiainlaiu  llic  kind 
of  ethical  atnios])hei"e  favorable  tu  the  development  of 
all  the  individuals,  and  this  will  affect  the  thief,  even 
though  we  may  not  be  able  to  discover  him.  This  ethi- 
cal atmosphere  results  in  such  a  force  of  public  opinion 
that  the  pressure  upon  every  child  to  behave  in  the 
proper  manner  is  very  strong-,  and  results  in  the  forma- 
tion of  ethical  habits  and  the  development  of  moral 
character. 

How  Deal  Ulfli  Lying  and  Cheating. — Nearly  the 
same  thino-  mav  be  said  of  Iving.  The  ethical  atmos- 
phere  here  manifested  by  the  expectation  of  the  teacher 
and  the  majority  of  the  children  that  ever}-  person  is 
expected  to  tell  the  truth,  and  the  suggestion  arising 
froni  this  expectation,  working  in  and  through  the  force 
of  public  opinion,  is  the  best  possible  condition  for  the 
proper  development  of  the  child  in  the  ways  of  truth. 
In  cases  of  cheating  and  other  allied  vices,  the  same 
principle  must  apply.  Shall  we  abandon  examinations 
and  recitations  because  some  children  may  cheat  in  them? 
The  conclusion  would  seem  to  be  unwarranted.  It  is 
inadvisable  to  do  things  that  will  encourage  cheating, 
and  it  is  equally  inadvisable  to  believe  that  no  one  will 
attempt  to  cheat.  It  is  best  that  the  teacher,  so  far  ,as 
possible,  shall  not  furnish  an  opportunity  for  the  pupil 
who  cheats  to  enjoy  the  fruits  of  cheating  to  the  disad- 
vantage of  those  who  do  honest  work. 

JJlirn  Inif'ossihJr  to  Disco:'cr  the  Offender. — Kven 
though  it  be  impossible  to  discover  a  pupil  in  the  act  of 


M0TI\1£S    IX    SCHOOL  301 

clicaling.  the  general  eharacter  which  makes  cheating 
natural  to  the  child  cannot  be  concealed,  and  the  teacher 
niav  have  a  good  general  idea  who  it  is  that  cheats,  with- 
out positive  evidence  of  the  fact.  About  the  only  thing 
that  the  teacher  can  do  is  to  prevent  the  reward  of  cheat- 
ing from  being  enjoyed ;  to  cultivate  such  an  ethical  at- 
mosphere that  children  will  grow  into  the  habit  of  not 
cheating;  to  establish  and  cultivate  a  public  opinion  that 
will  serve  at  once  as  an  incentive  to  honesty  and  a  deter- 
rent to  cheating. 

Inadequacy  of  Instruction  in  Morality. — The  principle 
here  enunciated  emphasizes  the  importance  of  the  teach- 
er's example  and  the  high  standard  of  behavior  that  he 
holds  in  mind  as  the  essential  factor  in  determining  the 
ethical  atmosphere.  Hence  it  is  quite  distinctly  unfavor- 
able to  the  teaching  of  morality  in  school  by  formal  les- 
sons of  any  kind.  Such  formal  lessons  are  likely  to  be 
destructive  to  the  establishing  of  the  proper  ethical  at- 
mosphere rather  than  favorable  to  it.  They  substitute  in- 
tellectual precepts  for  an  ethical  atmosphere  as  the  deter- 
mining factor  in  behavior. 

Eifect  of  Interest. — The  third  element  in  determining 
the  behavior  of  children  is  interest.  Children  feel  deeply 
and  strongly,  and  the  way  that  a  child  will  feel  at  any 
time  toward  a  particular  situation  is  determined  by  several 
factors ;  by  his  stage  of  development ;  by  the  suggestions 
that  he  receives  from  other  people,  and  wdiich  enter  into 
the  ethical  atmosphere  in  which  he  lives  :  by  other  cir- 
cumstances, such  a'?  habit,  the  result  of  his  ]iast  cxper- 


302  I'KINCII'LKS   OF    TKACllIXG 

iences,  and  by  anticipation  of  what  is  to  come.  In  one 
sense  of  the  word,  interest  is  the  dominant  factor,  and 
may  be  made  broad  enough  to  inchide  the  other  two  which 
have  ah-eady  been  discussed.  lUit  since  those  otlier  fac- 
tors determine  what  the  interest  shall  be,  it  is  necessary 
for  us  to  consider  the  actions  as  determined  in  part  by 
them. 

Interest  May  Be  in  J'arioiis  Things. — Interest  is  the 
feeling-  arising  from  the  recognition  of  a  relation  existing 
between  the  person  and  the  thing  to  which  he  attends. 
The  interest  which  results  in  proper  behavior  in  school 
may  arise  from  the  recognition  of  any  one  or  many  of 
such  a  multitude  of  relations  that  it  is  impossible  to  enum- 
erate them.  The  interest  may  be  in  the  learning  of  the 
lessons,  in  the  personality  of  the  teacher,  in  the  welfare 
or  reputation  of  the  school  as  a  whole ;  or  it  may  be  an 
interest  in  personal  welfare  associated  with  punishment 
or  reward. 

Transfer  of  Interest. — We  must  recognize  the  fact 
that  there  is  a  possibility  of  a  transformation  of  one  kind 
of  interest  to  another.  The  interest  of  curiosity  may  de- 
velop into  the  interest  of  personal  welfare,  and  this  may 
change  into  the  interest  of  habit.  The  teacher  is  justified, 
then,  in  making  use  of  one  form  of  interest,  even  though 
of  that  kind  whicli  may  be  called  artificial  and  totally  ex- 
traneous, expecting  to  substitute  for  it  a  higher  and  more 
permanent  interest  as  soon  as  it  can  be  done. 

Proper  Interest  is  in  School  Work.  Not  in  Behavior. —  I 

The  interest  that  leads  to  proper  behavior  in   school   is  f 


^r{1TI\•l:s  ix  sciioor,  303 

usually  not  an  interest  in  beluuior  itself,  but  an  interest 
in  the  regular  work  of  tb.e  school.  It  is  an  interest  in  the 
studies  and  subjects  of  instruction  and  the  regidar  school 
exercises,  rather  than  an  interest  in  behavior  as  such. 
This  is  the  fact  that  more  than  any  other  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  good  teaching  as  a  condition  of  dis- 
cipline. Discipline,  considered  as  determined  by  interest, 
becomes  not  an  end  nor  even  a  necessary  condition  of 
study,  but  an  inevitable  accompaniment  of  good  teaching. 
Discipline  and  good  teaching  are  therefore  so  inextrica- 
bly mingled  that  it  is  only  in  thought  that  we  are  able 
to  separate  them.  When  we  consider  a  school  well  gov- 
erned without  its  being  well  taught,  we  are  establishing 
a  false  standard  of  discipline  and  of  good  order.  It  is 
a  standard  which  iconoclasts  are  justified  in  deriding. 
The  only  true  discipline  is  that  which  comes  as  an  ac- 
companiment of  good  teaching,  and  which  is  determined 
in  very  large  part  by  interest. 

Deportment  Marks. — In  consequence  of  the  principle 
here  enunciated,  it  is  with  doubtful  propriety  that  teach- 
ers record  a  mark  for  deportment  in  children's  monthly 
reports  which  are  furnished  for  the  inspection  of  parents. 
This  seems  to  make  deportment  a  separate  subject,  like 
arithmetic,  and  to  distinguish  it  as  something  apart  from 
the  general  atmosphere  of  the  school.  It  furnishes  an 
improper  suggestion  and  makes  behavior  a  thing  in  itself, 
attracting  attention  to  it  in  a  way  rather  unfavorable 
than  otherwise  to  its  best  manifestation. 


304  ]'Kixcii'Li:s  OF  tkachixg 

Svxorsis 

1.  The  beliavior  of  chiKlrrii  is  (Iclcrmincd  largely  by 
three  factors:  The  stage  of  development  in  which  the 
child  is,  the  ethical  atmosphere  in  which  he  lives,  and 
interest. 

2.  Stealing,  l\ing  and  cheating  may  be  considered  as 
typical  school  crimes.  When  we  recognize  actions  by 
these  names,  we  may  regard  them  as  examples  of  re- 
tarded development. 

3.  The  ethical  atmosphere  is  the  sum  of  all  the  sug- 
gestions that  reach  a  pupil  from  the  expectation  of  the 
teacher  and  the  other  children  that  he  will  act  in  a  cer- 
tain way.  The  force  of  public  opinion  is  the  means  by 
which  the  pupil  is  influenced  to  act  as  he  is  expected 
act. 

4.  Interest  is  a  term  so  broad  that  it  may  be  made 
to  include  both  of  the  other  factors,  and  other  things  as 
well.  It  is  possible  to  bring  about  a  transformation  of 
interests,  so  that  when  a  habit  of  good  behavior  has  been 
established  in  consequence  of  one  interest,  it  may  be 
continued  in  consequence  of  an  interest  of  a  higher  order. 


I 


k 


CHAPTER  Win 

School  Txcextives 

Use  of  Iiiccittkcs  Legitimate. — We  may  use  the  term 
School  Iiicciitiz't's  to  designate  those  special  devices  by 
which  a  teacher  determines  the  interests  and  actions  of 
the  children.  Since  the  interest  may  be  transferred  from 
one  kind  to  another,  it  is  legitimate  for  the  teacher  to 
employ  a  device  appealing  to  an  interest  of  a  low  order  as 
a  means  of  attaining  to  an  interest  of  a  higher  order, 
and  reaching  a  higher  standard  of  conduct.  As  good 
teaching  is  a  fundamental  condition  for  securing  proper 
discipline,  so  devices  that  attract  children  to  take  a  proper 
attitude  toward  the  school  studies  arc  the  most  effective 
and  of  a  higher  order  than  those  devices  which  ap]:)eal 
merely  to  the  disciplinary  side  of  school  life.  Our  first 
endeavor,  then,  should  be  to  employ  such  devices  as  will 
induce  in  the  child  the  proper  kind  of  study,  and  good 
habits  of  recitation. 

Habit  as  an  Incentive. — The  interest  of  habit  is  one 
of  the  most  powerful  interests  tliat  children  have.  Tt 
is  essential  that  the  teacher  do  whatever  is  possible  to 
induce  good  habits  of  study.  It  is  imperative,  in  seek- 
ing to  establish  good  habits  of  study,  that  the  teacher 
be  careful   in   making  the  assignment   of   lessons.     The 

305 


306  I'KlXCll'LKS   Ui'"    TKACHIXG 

nature  of  the  assignment  and  the  recitation  may  be  varied 
according  to  the  degree  of  liabit  that  has  been  formed  in 
tlie  learning  of  the  lessons.  If  good  habits  of  study  have 
not  been  formed,  the  assignment  will  be  very  definite,  the 
recitation  will  be  mostly  a  testing  lesson,  and  there  will 
be  no  failure  to  call  for  every  portion  of  it.  The  lesson 
will  not  be  so  long  nor  so  difficult  as  to  render  it  painful 
to  learn,  thereby  arousing  an  unpleasant  interest,  and  it 
will  still  be  of  sufficient  difficulty  to  demand  efifort  suffi- 
cient to  awaken  a  pleasurable  interest  m  its  accomplish- 
ment. These  are  the  general  principles  to  apply  when  it 
is  our  purpose  to  induce  good  habits  of  study  in  a  class 
where  such  habits  do  not  at  present  exist. 

Program  as  an  Iiicciifkr. — Habits  are  engendered  by 
a  regular  succession  of  acts.  Repetition  and  regularity 
are  the  elements  that  enter  into  their  formation.  Rigid 
adherence  to  a  program  is  well  understood  to  be  one  of 
the  most  effective  devices  for  securing  good  habits  of 
studv.  It  is  a  conservative  force  that  leads  to  good 
teaching  and  to  good  discipline.  That  it  does  limit  the 
freedom  of  the  teacher  and  of  the  pupil  in  some  respects, 
and  prevents  the  accomplishing  of  as  much,  under  certain 
circmnstances,  as  might  be  accomplished  if  deviation  from 
it  were  permitted,  is  sometimes  very  true.  Hence  some 
teachers  refuse  to  be  bound  by  a  program ;  but  when  it 
is  the  intention  to  establish  good  habits  of  study,  and  to 
encourage  the  interest  of  habit,  rigid  adherence  to  a 
program  is  essential.  A  program  in  itself  is  a  device  for 
securing  such  habits. 


SCHOOL    l.XCliXTINKS  307 

Habit  Opposed  in  Curiosity. — The  interest  of  habit 
resulting  from  the  employment  of  a  program  is  opposed 
to  the  interest  of  curiosity  or  newness,  which  arises  in 
the  deviation  from  it.  The  interest  of  habit  is  a  much 
safer  interest  and  a  higher  form,  as  well  as  more  effective 
in  maintaining  good  behavior  in  school. 

Imitation  as  an  Inccntifc. — The  interest  of  imitation 
is  a  powerful  interest  which  has  already  been  discussed. 
The  idea  of  the  teacher  is  imitated,  rather  than  the 
spoken  word  in  which  the  teacher  might  state  his  rules 
of  conduct.  The  teacher  expresses  by  his  own  habits 
of  order  and  neatness  his  real  idea  of  discipline  and  of 
good  behavior  in  school,  and  it  is  this  rather  than  the 
verbal  expression  which  is  imitated.  His  actions  furnish 
the  suggestions  which,  unconsciously  to  the  children,  con- 
stitute the  motive  for  a  corresponding  action  in  them. 

Intellectual  Interest  as  hicentive. — A  third  element  in 
interest  is  the  intellectual  feeling,  by  which  is  meant  the 
desire  on  the  part  of  children  to  know.  Children  really 
desire  to  learn,  and  to  know-  things.  It  is  a  natural  in- 
terest, and  it  is  one  to  which  the  teacher  can  apjieal  very 
successfully.  We  may  see  a  manifestation  of  it  in  the 
eagerness  with  wliicli  children  of  a  certain  age  work  at 
puzzles,  and  by  tlie  rpiestions  lliat  t-Jiildren  of  an  earlier 
age  ask.  The  little  child  is  essentially  an  animated  inter- 
rogation point,  and  if  the  subject  that  we  wish  the  child 
to  learn  is  presented  to  him  in  the  right  way,  we  shall  find 
that  he  is  eager  to  learn.  Teacliers  u>na1]v  regard  this 
interest  too  lightly.     They  assume  that  study  is  distaste- 


308  PKl.XCU'Lli.S   OF    TEACH  IXO 

fill,  and  that  the  suhject  must  be  made  attractive  to  the 
child  by  extraneous  means.  The  child  accepts  this  sug- 
gestion, and  becomes  indisposed  to  learn. 

Teaching  Little  Chihireii  to  Read. — It  is  believed  by 
many  people  that  tlie  little  child   should  not  be  put  to 
learning  to  read  and  write  as  soon  as  he  goes  into  school, 
but  that  he  should  be  set  to  doing  something  else  wbich 
will  show  him  the  necessity  of  learning  to  read  and  write. 
When  he   has   discovered   the  necessity   for  learning  to 
read   and   write,   then  there  will  be  little  trouble  in   in- 
ducing him  to  learn  these  subjects.     It  seems  tliat  the 
mistake   in  this   philosophy  lies   in   the   assumption   that 
reading  and  writing  are  in  themselves  disagreeable  sub- 
jects, and  that  something  else  is  agreeable.     The  fact  is, 
that   if  the   same  suggestion  is  given  to  the  child  con- 
cerning reading  and  writing  and  numbers,  that  is  given  to 
him  concerning  construction  work  or  nature  study,  the 
same   disposition  to  learn   reading  and   writing   will   be 
manifested    that    is  exhibited  toward  the  other  subjects, 
which  are  believed  to  be  in  themselves  more  attractive. 
^^'e  make  a  mistake  if  we  assume  that  school  subjects  are 
not  full  of  interest  to  the  children.  Every  lesson  should  be 
a  problem,  and  should  challenge  the  best  efforts  of  the 
child.    We  may  destroy  all  interest  by  making  our  lessons 
too  easv,  and  we  can  destroy  it  by  making  them  so  diffi- 
cult that  the  experience  in  learning  is  a  painful  one. 

Artificial  Incentives. — In  our  use  of  the  word  incen- 
tives, we  are  rather  inclined,  however,  to  limit  it  to  the 
artificial,    extrnncous    devices    by    ^\■1lich    we    induce    an 


sciiodi.  i\'ci'-XTi\'i:s  300 

iiiUTc^l,  iidl  in  llu"  .sillily  il>ill'.  iinr  in  llic  rcjunlar  exrr- 
cises  of  the  scliool,  \n\[  in  siMUclInno-  ol>c  thai  may  iii- 
vulvc  as  a  condition,  compliance  witli  all  the  sclmol  rcs^ii- 
lations.  Our  general  principle  is  that  such  extraneous 
incentives  are  justifiable  if  they  are  necessary  to  the 
formation  of  good  habits  of  study  and  conduct,  and  if 
the  lower  interest  generated  in  them  is  afterward  trans- 
ferred to  the  higher  forms  of  interest  ultimately  involved 
in  the  school  exercises  themselves.  Let  us  apply  this 
principle  to  the  discussion  of  some  common  forms  of  in- 
centives. 

Pri.-jcs  as  Iiicciitiz'cs. — The  giving  of  prizes  is  one 
of  the  most  common  incentives  adopted  to  induce  interest 
in  school  exercises.  Some  world  famous  prizes  are  ex- 
tensively advertised,  and  others  that  are  not  called  prizes 
are  equally  good  examples  of  such  incentives.  The  Nobel 
prizes  are  awarded  each  year,  and  nearly  every  great 
scientific  association  ofTers  prizes  as  rewards  for  success 
in  competition.  In  colleges  and  universities,  prizes,  under 
the  name  of  scholarships,  are  offered  from  year  to  year. 
The  public  schools  of  elementary  grade  have  mostly 
passed  beyond  this  stage  of  development  that  encourages 
the  giving  of  prizes,  and  nothing  has  been  lost,  but  rather 
a  distinct  gain  has  been  made  thereby. 

Et'ils  of  Prize  Giz'iiii^. — The  objections  to  the  giving 
of  prizes  in  scliool  are  very  strong.  Prizes  appeal  to  but 
few  in  a  class.  They  appeal  only  to  those  who  have  a  good 
chance  of  olitaining  fliem.  and  these  few  are  the  be-^t 
pupils,  who  need  the  incentive  least.     Tt  accentuates  the 


310  I'RlNCIl'LliS   Ol-'    TEACHING 

difference  between  the  good  and  the  bad,  while  we  desire 
to  bring-  the  bad  up  nearer  to  the  good,  thus  diminishing 
instead  of  accentuating  the  difference.  The  winning  of 
the  prize  depends  upon  success  in  competition,  rather 
than  upon  success  in  accomplishment.  The  success  may 
be  obtained  in  an  honorable  or  a  dishonorable  way.  Mis- 
fortune to  a  competitor  is  as  effective  in  winning  the 
prize  as  is  excellence  in  the  one  who  wins  it.  It  is  closely 
allied  to  the  disposition  to  get  something  for  nothing 
which  is  the  spirit  of  gambling,  and  is  assimilated  to  the 
undeveloped  stage  that  permits  one  to  steal.  Altogether, 
there  is  little  that  can  be  said  in  favor  of  the  incentive 
of  prizes  in  school. 

Other  Rczvards  as  Incentives. — The  same  objections 
apply  with  less  force  to  rewards,  or  marks  of  distinction, 
that  are  given  for  successful  work  rather  than  for  com- 
petitive superiority.  Such  rewards  often  take  the  form 
of  diplomas,  certificates,  medals,  degrees  and  promotions. 
It  must  be  understood  that  these  are  artificial  incentives 
and  open  to  the  objections  that  they  center  the  interest 
mpon  the  distinction,  rather  than  upon  the  end  that  is  the 
real  purpose  of  study.  When,  however,  the  rewards,  or 
marks  of  distinction  are  not  emphasized,  but  the  interest 
aroused  by  them  is  transferred  to  the  study  which  is  the 
real  purpose  of  school  work,  there  is  no  serious  objection 
to  them. 

The  Markini^  System. — A  system  of  markings,  either 
in  percentages  or  in  some  thinly  disguised  form  of  per 
cents,  is  often  employed  as  an  incentive  to  work  in  school. 


SCHOOL    IXCEXTINES  311 

The  children  arc  graded  in  per  cents,  and  the  standing 
of  the  pupil  enters  as  an  element  into  the  ethical  atmos- 
phere in  which  the  child  lives.  Sometimes,  if  a  child  has 
a  certain  per  cent  standing  in  his  classes  he  is  allowed 
special  privileges  ;  or  if  he  lacks  a  certain  per  cent  stand- 
ing he  is  denied  participation  in  special  school  opi)ortuni- 
ties.  Occasionally  a  regulation  is  made  that  pupils  with 
a  certain  high  per  cent  standing  in  daily  work  will  not 
be  recjuired  to  take  a  final  examination  in  their  subject, 
while  it  is  almost  universal  in  colleges  and  high  schools, 
that  pupils  who  have  failed  to  maintain  a  certain  per 
cent  standing  in  their  work  are  deprived  of  the  privilege 
of  playing  upon  the  football  and  baseball  teams  of  their 
schools  until  they  have  brought  their  work  up  to  the 
required  mark. 

Unconsidered  Indignation. — ]Many  years  ago  a  great 
wave  of  indignation  swept  over  the  country  concerning 
the  marking  system,  and  the  same  feeling  persists  to  such 
an  extent  that  we  feel  even  now  when  we  mention  a 
marking  system,  we  must  apologize  for  its  introduction 
into  educational  discussions.  However,  it  is  of  so  much 
practical  importance  that  it  is  well  for  us  to  consider  the 
matter  carefully. 

Objections  to  the  Marking  System. — The  objections 
to  the  use  of  per  cent  markings  as  an  incentive  to  study 
are  numerous  and  weighty.  Tn  the  first  place,  the  objec- 
tion is  ofi*ered  that  cliildrcn  are  thus  taught  to  compare 
themselves  with  each  other  and  to  take  pride  in  com- 
petitive superiority.     This  is  the  same  objection  that  is 


312  rKIXCll'LES   OF    TFACniXG 

made  1(j  the  i^ivint;-  of  prizes  as  an  incentive,  and  has 
eqtial  vahdit}-.  It  is  not  inherent  in  the  marking  system, 
however,  as  it  is  in  the  prize  system.  The  teacher  may 
report  the  mark  of  the  pnpil  only  to  the  pupil  himself, 
then  it  is  not  possible  for  him  to  make  invidious  com- 
parisons. Another  objection  is  that  the  marks  cannot 
tell  the  truth.  When  one  child  is  marked  75.1  and  an- 
other is  marked  74.9  it  is  impossible  to  affirm  that  one 
child  is  superior  to  another.  We  cannot  be  sure  that 
there  is  an  actual  difference  in  the  ability  or  success  of  the 
two  children,  yet  one  may  be  promoted  upon  this  mark- 
intr,  and  the  other  mav  be  cast  into  outer  darkness.  This 
is  very  likely  true,  but  if  there  is  any  attempt  to  employ 
promotion  as  an  incentive,  there  is  a  necessity  for  some 
method  of  drawing  the  line  between  those  who  shall  be 
promoted  and  those  who  shall  not.  x\ny  method  that 
sliall  be  devised  for  this  purpose  will  probably  be  open 
to  the  same  objection  in  greater  degree. 

Promotion  Dctcnnincd  by  Marks. — Promotion  is  often 
used  as  an  incentive  in  school  work.  This  is  not  its  pri- 
mary purpose,  and  to  use  it  so  is  rather  a  perversion 
of  its  real  function.  The  real  purpose  of  promotion  is  to 
adjust  the  individual  pupil  in  such  classes  as  will  enable 
him  to  studv  vritb  the  prospect  of  greatest  improvement. 
Promotion  is  intended  to  advance  the  ]m]n]  to  such  a 
class  that  his  al)ility  and  stage  of  develo|)ment  will  be  as 
ui'arlx  as  jiossilile  e(|nal  to  that  of  other  members  of  the 
ela^s.  ('hildren  do  nol  all  dexelo])  with  eipial  rapidity. 
If   tlu'x-    did,    (here    wonld    be    no    necessit\-    for    making 


SCHOOL    INCENTIVES  313 

(li>oriniinations  between  pupils  in  promotions,  but  all 
members  of  a  class  could  take  up  different  subjects  at 
tbe  same  time.  The  good  of  the  child  is  the  only  thing" 
that  should  determine  his  promotion,  and  that  good  can 
be  decided  satisfactorily  only  by  the  person  who  knows 
the  pupil's  ability  best,  namely,  the  teacher.  Often  it  may 
happen  that  a  pupil  enters  upon  the  adolescent  stage  and 
should  be  promoted  to  a  higher  class,  when  his  class 
work  is  not  so  good  as  that  of  other  pupils  who  have 
not  developed  physically  so  rapidl}',  but  whose  per  cent 
standing  is  higher. 

Facility,  of  Determining  Promotion  by  Marks. — It  is 
difficult,  however,  to  bring  children  and  parents  to  realize 
all  of  these  situations,  wdiile  the  per  cent  scale  is  easily 
comprehended.  Therefore,  notwithstanding  the  inad- 
equacy of  promotions  based  exclusively  upon  percentage, 
it  is  usually  found  to  be  more  satisfactory  to  adopt  that 
basis  as  a  determining  factor  in  making  promotions. 
When  such  a  plan  of  promotions  is  adopted,  it  is  very 
easy  and  very  effective  to  employ  promotion  based  upon 
percentages  as  an  incentive  to  study. 

Advantages  of  a  Marking  System. — This,  then,  is  one 
of  the  purposes  and  one  of  the  advantages  of  markings. 
Not  only  are  they  employed,  sometimes,  as  an  incentive 
to  study,  but  they  arc  employed  by  the  teacher  as  a 
means  of  making  up  liis  judgment  upon  the  success  of 
the  pu])irs  work.  TcacluT^  are  called  ujxin  to  decide 
whether  a  child  ^hall  be  promoicd  or  not.  Tlie\'  must 
sometimes  dcc-idc  wlicthi'i-  a  child  shall  "(i  inlo  aiiotluT 


314  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

class  or  grade,  or  remain  in  tlie  one  in  which  he  now  is. 
Pass  or  not  pass,  is  the  decision  to  be  made.  In  order 
to  avoid  injustice,  a  careful  record  of  the  pupil's  work 
in  the  shortest  possible  way  is  needed.  The  record  is  not 
necessarily  open  to  the  inspection  of  the  pupil,  but  may 
be  exclusively  for  the  benefit  of  the  teacher  in  making 
decisions  that  shall  not  be  unjust. 

Marks  Assist  in  Making  Correct  Judgment. — A 
teacher  is  called  upon  constantly  to  make  judgments  upon 
the  success  of  a  pupil's  work.  A  parent  would  have  just 
cause  for  indignation  if  the  teacher  were  sincere  in  the 
statement  that  he  does  not  know  how  successful  the 
child  is  in  his  school  work.  If  the  teacher  really  does 
not  know,  he  is  unworthy  of  his  place.  The  mark  is 
merely  a  shorthand  way  of  expressing  the  teacher's 
judgment  of  the  child's  work.  The  average  of  several 
marks  is  likely  to  be  more  nearly  correct  than  is  any 
single  judgment.  An  error  in  one  is  corrected  by  an 
error  in  the  opposite  direction  in  another.  A  teacher 
may  feel  that  he  knows  what  a  child  can  do,  but  an 
average  of  ten  or  twenty  marks  does  not  agree  with 
his  single  judgment.  His  record  is  more  likely  to  be 
correct  every  time.  In  case  of  a  good  student,  a  single 
failure  in  recitation  will  stand  out  more  strongly  because 
it  is  an  unusual  circumstance,  and  it  will  diminish  the 
opinion  of  the  teacher  toward  that  pupil  more  than  a 
dozen  good  recitations  will  raise  it.  On  the  other  hand, 
a  poor  student  who  makes  a  brilliant  recitation  one  day 
v,ill  receive  more  credit  in  the  general  estimation  of  the 


SCHOOL    INCENTIVES  315 

teacher  than  he  will  deserve.  The  average  of  marks 
will  show  forth  a  much  more  nearly  accurate  estimate 
of  the  pupil's  success  in  his  studies  than  will  a  single 
general  judgment. 

Marks  an  Unzvorthy  Motive  to  Study.. — Another  oh- 
jection  to  the  use  of  marks  as  an  incentive  is  that  it 
establishes  a  wrong  motive  for  study.  Instead  of  study- 
ing for  the  good  that  is  to  be  derived  from  the  study 
itself,  the  children  work  for  marks  alone.  Instead  of  in- 
culcating an  interest  in  learning,  it  inculcates  an  interest 
in  getting  marks.  Children  work  for  marks  rather  than 
for  the  good  that  they  are  to  derive  from  their  school 
work. 

Anszvcr  to  the  Objection. — This  is  a  valid  objection, 
and  can  be  removed  only  by  an  application  of  the  princi- 
ple that  interest  aroused  by  one  device  may  be  trans- 
formed into  a  better  and  higher  form.  It  must  be  recog- 
nized  also,  that  the  value  to  the  child  comes  not  from  the 
aim  that  the  child  himself  holds  in  view, but  from  the  effect 
that  is  produced  upon  the  child  by  his  own  activity,  how- 
ever that  activity  may  be  induced.  The  apparent  aim  in 
school  work,  which  is  recognized  by  the  child,  is  seldom 
the  real  purpose  recognized  by  the  teacher  or  the  educa- 
tional philosopher.  This  consideration  takes  away  a  large 
part  of  the  force  of  the  objection.  A  mark  is  merely  a 
shorthand  expression  of  the  judgment  of  the  teacher, 
upon  a  single  recitation.  It  is,  perhaps,  a  short  way  of 
saying  privately  "I  commend  you."  or  "That  is  good." 
No  one  believes  that  the  approval  of  the  teacher  is  an 


olO  rKIXCll'lj:S   0|-     I  IIACIUXG 

uiiw « irtli)'  nu)li\L'  In  woik  idr.  uiid  llir  mark  i>  iiicre-ly  ;i 
\\a\'  of  cxpressiiii;'  lliat  a])i)r()\al.  Xcitlicr  is  iIrtc  aii)'  (>])- 
jection  to  the  comparison  Ijy  the  pupil  of  his  own  work 
one  month  with  his  own  work  of  the  month  before.  This 
kind  of  rivahy  of  the  pupil  with  himself  and  his  desire 
to  do  better  than  he  did  before  is  one  of  the  most  ^^•orthy 
motives.  The  recorded  judgments  of  the  teacher  en- 
able him  to  make  this  kind  of  comparison,  and  they  need 
no  apolog}-. 

The  Really.  J\ilid  Objections  to  Marks. — The  greatest 
objection  to  the  marking  system  in  all  its  variations  is 
that  it  takes  too  much  time  and  ellfort  on  the  part  of  the 
teacher.  Especially  when  the  teacher  attempts  to  make 
a  record  of  recitations  in  the  time  of  the  class  period, 
it  is  likely  to  distract  his  attention  from  the  real  busi- 
ness of  teaching,  to  disrupt  the  unity  of  thought,  and 
to  diminish  very  much  the  effectiveness  of  teaching 
power.  The  school  in  which  the  recpurements  for  gradu- 
ation arc  the  most  rigid,  adhere  most  strongly  to  a  mark- 
ing system.  The  advantages  are  great,  although  there 
is  danger  of  injustice.  It  is  not  to  be  commended  highly 
as  a  means  of  inducing  study,  but  has  its  chief  value  in 
determining  promotion. 

Einuiaiiou  as  an  Incentive. — Emulation  is  the  basis  of 

manv  devices  for  inducing  study,  or  proper  behavior  in 
school.  In  some  schools,  this  takes  the  form  of  head- 
marks,  or  ranking  in  class.  When  so  used,  it  has  all  the 
objectionable  features  of  prizes.  \\'hen.  however,  emula- 
tion is  made  the  basis  of  tcnm-plav.  in  which  one  school 


SCHOOL  ]xcEXTi\"i:s;  317 

is  pitted  against  another,  or  one  room  against  another 
roiiin,  or  one  i^ortion  of  the  room  against  another  portion, 
it  is  in  large  part  relieved  from  this  ohjection.  Team-pla}' 
is  one  of  the  most  efficient  means  of  socialization,  and 
competitive  team-play  is  in  accordance  with  the  natnral 
tendencies  and  stages  of  development  of  children  ahove 
tlie  age  of  twelve  or  fourteen.  Emulation  is  fretjuently 
niade  the  basis  of  team-play  in  spelling,  in  arithmetic 
or  in  geography.  The  same  principle  is  sometimes  em- 
plo\ed  in  maintaining  school  order.  Tardiness  yields 
more  readily  to  tliis  treatment  than  to  any  other.  The 
room  in  school  which  shows  the  smallest  number  of 
cases  of  tardiness  is  furnished  with  some  mark  of  dis- 
tinction which  is  retained  until  some  other  room  shows 
fewer  cases  of  tardiness,  when  it  is  passed  over  to  that 
other  room.  Tar<liness  almost  disappears  under  the  stress 
of  such  incentive,  although  it  is  questionable  if  in  such 
cases,  punctuality  is  not  sometimes  obtained  at  too  great 
cost.  It  is  a  question  whether  devices  based  upon  such 
a  principle  may  not  become  too  efifective. 

Pupil  Govcrnuioit. — Only  a  slight  variation  of  this 
device  leads  to  pupil-government  in  school.  Children 
may  be  brought  to  have  such  regard  for  the  discipline 
of  their  room  that  government  may  safely  be  left  to 
the  children  themselves.  The  force  of  public  ojiinion 
is  strong  enough  in  such  cases  to  act  as  a  restraint  upon 
disorder,  and  it  may  act  very  effectively.  Tt  seems  of 
doubtful  propriety,  however,  for  the  teacher  to  abandon 
all  authoritN'.  even  in  the  best  of  circumstances.     Tn  fact 


318  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

all  authority  is  never  abandoned,  but  the  impulse  leading 
to  the  establishment  of  the  ethical  ideal  originates  with 
the  teacher,  and  is  constantly  maintained  by  him.  The 
teacher's  authority  may  never  be  openly  exercised,  but 
he  is  and  must  be  ready  to  take  control  at  any  time  that 
the  government  seems  to  be  in  danger. 

General  Exercises  and  Special  Days.— In  this  connec- 
tion we  must  not  neglect   the  consideration  of  general 
exercises,  such  as  singing,  and  lessons  of  such  a  nature 
that  the  entire  school  may  participate  in  them.     Such  arc 
the  celebration  of  Washington's  birthday.  Thanksgiving, 
and  other   anniversary   days   and   special   occasions.     In 
some  schools  this  is  made  a  regular  institution.     Such 
exercises  have  the  advantage  of  causing  the  school  to 
work  together  as  a  unit  and  contributes  to  the  develop- 
ment of  the  community  ideal.     It  has  the  serious  disad- 
vantage   of    breaking    up    the    formation    of    habit,    and 
relying  upon  another  interest,  usually  of  less  value  than 
that  of  habit,  which  it  displaces.     It  proceeds  to  adopt  a 
dififerent  line  of   study   from   that   which  has  been   laid 
down  as  the  best  for  all  pupils  when  the  entire  situation 
is  considered.     In  schools  where  it  is  made  an  incident, 
and  not  ])ermittc(l  to  break  up  and  destroy  the  regular 
work    of    the    school,    much    good    may    come    from    it. 
Whether  the  practice  is  good  or  l)a<l  is  likely  to  depend 
upon   attendant    circumstances    and   tlic    entire    situation 
in  the  school.     It  cannot  be  sweepingly  commended  nor 
unsparingly  condemned. 

Artificial  Incentives  to  be  Miniini.':e<i. — All  the  incen- 


SCHOOL    I.\CEXTI\ES  319 

lives  so  far  discussed  are  devices,  whose  value  depends 
upon  the  apphcation  of  the  principle  of  the  transforma- 
tion of  interests.  If  the  teacher  is  of  such  vigorous  per- 
scnahty  that  extraneous  devices  are  not  necessary,  it  is 
better  to  minimize  their  apphcation.  The  teacher  whose 
pupils  maintain  good  order  and  who  work  steadily  with- 
out being  conscious  of  any  of  the  machinery  by  which 
the  teacher  induces  in  them  this  condition  of  study  will 
in  all  probability  accomplish  more  than  the  teacher  whose 
pupils  are  consciously  stimulated  by  devices  for  such  pur- 
pose. Especially  is  this  the  case  when  the  principle  of 
transfer  of  interest  is  neglected  and  the  children  are 
actuated  consciously  and  avowedly  by  the  incidence  of 
the  device  itself. 

Incentive  May  he  too  Effective. — One  other  objec- 
tion is  frequently  urged  to  every  one  of  such  devices 
as  it  is  particularly  and  successfully  applied.  Each  one 
is  charged  with  inducing  too  intense  application  of  cer- 
tain children  to  study,  tn  the  detriment  of  their  physical 
health  and  their  nervous  condition.  Each  device  is  be- 
lieved to  be,  sometimes,  too  successful.  This  is  a  sren- 
eral  condition  and  not  a  criticism  upon  the  employment 
of  devices  in  themselves.  That  the  amount  of  pressure 
necessary  to  induce  proper  study  in  one  group  of  children 
will  produce  an  injurious  intensity  of  study  in  another 
group  is  sometimes  true.  But  it  is  rather  decidedly 
easier  to  modulate  the  too  intense  activity  of  the  studious 
and  orderly,  than  it  is  to  induce  a  proper  degree  of 
activity  in  those  who  are  indisposed  to  study  at  all,  or  to 


320  PRINCIl'LKS   OF    TEACHING 

conform  to  scliool  rc^e^ulations.  The  criticism  that  in- 
centives succeed  too  well  in  what  llie\'  are  designed  to 
accomplish  docs  not  argue  that  they  are  to  he  abandoned, 
hilt  that  the  child  slmuld  always  he  considered  in  making 
an  application  of  the  device. 

Synopsis 

1.  The  principle  of  transformation  of  interests  per- 
mits the  employment  of  incentives  of  a  low  order,  ex- 
pecting them  ultimatel}'  to  be  supplanted  by  those  of  a 
higher  order. 

2.  Habit,  imitation,  and  intellectual  feeling  are  in- 
terests of  a  high  order  which  may  be  appealed  to  without 
hesitation  by  the  teacher. 

3.  Some  incentives  of  lower  order  which  may  be 
employed  to  induce  the  interest  of  habit  are  prizes,  marks 
of  distinction,  such  as  diplomas,  class  rankings,  per  cent 
markings,  promotion  and  emulation.  Each  of  these  is 
open  to  criticism,  and  they  vary  much  in  the  degree 
with  which  thev  mav  be  commended  or  condemned. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

The  Formation  of  the  General  Abstract  Notioj^ 

Importance  of  an  Understanding  of  the  General  Ab- 
stract Notion. — Xo  discussion  of  the  principles  of  teach- 
ing can  be  satisfactory  that  does  not  inckide  a  study  of 
the  general  abstract  notion.  An  inadequate  knowledge 
of  it  is  the  cause  of  very  much  poor  teaching,  and  the 
occasion  of  nearly  all  the  ludicrous  mistakes  in  examina- 
tion papers.  A  teacher  who  fails  to  know  the  process 
by  which  the  general  abstract  notion  is  formed  is  not  in 
a  situation  to  direct  the  studies  of  children  to  the  most 
successful  issue. 

Composition  of  a  Notion,  or  Concept. — By  general 
abstract  notion  we  understand  the  meaning,  or  content, 
of  a  common  noun.  The  word  concept  is  used  to  express 
the  same  thing  that  is  indicated  here  by  the  term  general 
abstract  notion  ;  but  the  latter  term  seems  to  be  more 
suitable  for  our  purpose.  \A'e  may  distinguish  a  general 
abstract  notion,  expressed  by  a  common  noun,  from  a 
singular  concrete  notion,  expressed  by  a  proper  noun. 
The  singular  concrete  notion  arises  as  the  result  of  a 
combination  of  sensations  experienced  at  the  same  time. 
A  sensation  is  the  simplest  intellectual  process  wliich 
we  can  distinguish,  and  it  is  the  psychological  accom- 
paniment of  a  nervous  impulse  started  in  a  sense  organ 
and  carried  to  its  brain  center. 

321 


322  i'Ri.\cii'Li:s  OK  'ji:ac)iixg 

Cmit/'ostlioii  of  a  I'rrcvpt. — A  sensation  makes  lis  ac- 
qnainted  with  the  (|nahty  of  an  ol)jcct.  JM'oni  an  ol)jcct 
we  may  obtain  several  sensations,  corrcspoiKhns;-  to  sev- 
eral qnalitics.  These  sensations  accom[iany  peripherally 
initiated  impnlses  ;  bnt  as  soon  as  the  peripherally  initia- 
ted impulses  have  been  established,  and  the  correspond- 
ing sensations  experienced ,  then,  in  nearly  all  cases, 
centrally  initiated  impulses  accompanying  other  sensa- 
tions, which  we  may  designate  as  faint,  combine  with 
them.  All  the  sensations  that  are  experienced  at  the  same 
time,  both  faint  and  vivid,  combine,  modify  each  other, 
and  the  result  is  a  percept,  or  singular  concrete  notion. 
There  may  be  ten  sensations  of  dififerent  degrees  of  in- 
tensity accompanying  centrally  initiated  impulses,  while 
there  may  be  only  four  sensations  accompanying  peri- 
pherally initiated  impulses.  This  is  the  truth  involved  in 
the  statement  that  we  see  more  with  the  mind  than  we 
do  with  the  eye. 

What  is  a  P^-opcr  Noun? — If  the  singular  concrete 
notion  is  properly  expressed,  its  expression  is  a  proper 
noun.  Tt  is  the  notion  of  some  particular  object,  or  a 
single  individual  thing.  \"cry  few  objects  that  we  have 
occasion  to  indicate  have  individual  names,  so  we  dis- 
tinguish which  one  of  a  number  of  objects  we  mean  by 
the  employment  of  a  number  of  limiting  words  attached 
to  a  common  noun. 

The  process  by  which  a  general  abstract  notion  is 
formed  may  be  illustrated  from  every  branch  of  studv, 
but  we  can  exhibit  the  process  very  satisfactorily  by  show- 


TUli    GENERAL    AUSTKACT    NOTIOX  323 

iiij;-  how  the  general  absiract  notion  of  an  insect  is  ob- 
tained. 

Tl:c  Process  of  .Ibstraction. — Let  ns  snppose  that  we 
arc  stndying-  a  grasshopper,  and  we  begin  witli  the  stndy 
of  an  indivichial.  The  first  thing  that  we  do  is  to  see  the 
grasshopper  as  a  whole.  This,  however,  is  not  sufficient 
to  give  us  a  satisfactory  knowledge  of  the  animal.  We 
observe  that  it  is  made  up  of  parts.  There  are  three 
b(^dy  divisions,  the  head,  thorax  and  abdomen.  Leavmg 
out  of  consideration  for  the  time  being  all  other  parts 
of  the  body,  we  fix  our  attention  upon  the  head.  We  ob- 
serve that  the  head  itself  is  composed  of  diflferent  parts, 
and  we  may  distinguish  the  eyes,  excluding  from  consid- 
eration, for  the  time,  all  other  parts  of  the  head.  We  see 
that  the  eye  itself  is  composed  of  parts,  six-sided  facets, 
of  which  there  are  several  thousand  in  each  eye.  Each 
facet  corresponds  to  a  single  eye,  and  if  every  facet  ex- 
cept one  were  covered  up,  the  grasshopper  could  still  see 
w  ith  that  one  facet.  In  consequence  of  the  convexity  of 
the  eye,  some  of  the  facets  are  directed  upward,  some 
downward,  some  sideways,  some  backward,  some  for- 
ward. Thus  the  grasshopper  is  enabled  to  see  in  all  di- 
rections at  once  without  moving  his  head  or  changing 
the  position  of  his  eyes.  Tt  really  seems  as  if  he  had 
been  design.ed  by  providence  to  be  a  school  teacher. 

Counting,  a  Process  of  Abstraction. — Then  we  look 
at  the  antennae,  excluding  from  consideration  for  the 
time  being  all  other  organs,  We  count  the  segments 
of'  the  antennae,  not  merely  to  find  out  how  many  seg- 


324  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

ments  there  are,  although  this  information  will  naturally 
be  obtained,  but  in  order  that  we  shall  fix  our  attention 
for  an  instant  of  time  upon  each  single  segment,  to  the 
exclusion  of  every  other  segment,  and  of  every  part  of 
the  head. 

Importance  of  Abstraction. — \\'hen  I  am  fixing  my 
attention  upon  one  thmg  to  the  exclusion  of  everything 
else,  I  am  engaged  in  the  process  of  abstraction.  It  is  a 
very  important  process,  and  rather  a  difficult  one.  That 
it  is  an  important  process  is  rendered  evident  by  the 
number  of  abstract  w'ords  and  common  nouns  that  we 
employ. 

The  definition  of  an  abstract  noun  given  in  our  gram- 
mars, that  it  is  the  name  of  a  property  or  a  quality  consid- 
ered separate  and  apart  from  the  object  to  which  it  be- 
longs, is  accurate,  but  usually  means  little  to  the  chil- 
dren who  are  called  upon  to  learn  it.  It  is  just  as  truly 
a  process  of  abstraction  to  examine  the  leg  of  a  grass- 
hopper to  the  exclusion  of  the  other  parts  of  the  animal, 
as  it  is  to  abstract  truth,  weight,  redness,  or  any  other 
property  of  an  idea. 

The  Process  of  Analysis. — The  second  process  that 
is  emploved  in  the  study  of  an  object,  and  Avhich  is  neces- 
sary to  an  understanding  of  the  process  by  which  a 
general  abstract  notion  is  formed,  is  the  process  of  analy- 
sis which  goes  along  concurrently  with  the  process  of  ab- 
straction, and  indeed  can  scarcely  be  separated  from  it. 
Analvsis  differs  from  abstraction  in  the  fact  that  by  analy- 
sis we  examine  the  relations  that  one  part  holds  to  the 


THF.    (iENF.KAl.    Al'.SrRACT    NOTION  325 

otlicr  parts.     It  accompanies  the  process  of  abstraction, 
but  can  be  separated  from  it  in  thought. 

Analysis  in  Cram  mar  and  Arithmetic. — We  hear  much 
of  analysis  in  grammar  and  in  arithmetic,  and  the  process 
is  the  same  wherever  we  find  it.  The  analysis  of  a  prob- 
lem in  arithmetic  consists  in  the  perception  of  the  rela- 
tions that  one  quantity  in  the  problem  holds  to  the  other 
quantities.  A  problem  is  difticult  or  easy  according  as 
the  relations  are  apparent  or  obscure.  So  every  problem 
in  arithmetic  is  solved  by  analysis,  and  this  is  the  fact 
which  attests  the  wisdom  of  discarding  rules  in  the  so- 
lution of  problems.  In  the  analysis  of  sentences  m  gram- 
mar we  need  to  see  the  relation  that  one  word  or  element 
of  a  sentence  holds  to  the  other  words,  or  elements. 

Abstraction  and  Analysis  Inz'olz'cd  m  the  Studying  of 
a  Thing. — This  process  of  analysis  and  abstraction  is  a 
necessary  step  in  the  development  of  the  general  abstract 
notion,  but  it  is  all  included  in  the  study  of  the  individual 
thine.  It  is  as  necessarv  to  the  formation  of  the  particu- 
lar  concrete  notion,  as  it  is  to  the  general  abstract  notion, 
and  is  involved  iu  an\  process  of  perception. 

Wc  Study  a  New  Thing  by.  Means  of  the  Old.—Aiter 
we  have  obtained  as  tliorough  a  knowledge  of  a  single 
insect  as  we  can  get,  we  proceed  to  study  in  the  same  way 
other  related  insects.  It  will  recfuire  not  nearly  so  long 
a  time  to  study  a  cricket  as  it  did  to  study  the  grass- 
hopper. We  can  sec  just  as  many  things  and  see  them 
just  as  well  in  one-fourth  of  the  time  that  we  spent  in 
studying  the  grasshopper.    This  is  not  because  our  pow- 


^2(> 


TRixciPi.KS  ()]■  'ri:  \cm\'(; 


CIS  of  observation  li.'uc  Ix'cn  culii\  alcd.  l)ut  Ijccausc  \\c 
have  (jbtained  a  bo(l\'  of  knowledge  which  is  related  to 
that  which  we  obtain  from  the  cricket,  and  by  means  of 
W'hich  we  apprehend  and  interpret  its  structure  and  life. 
It  is  by  means  of  this  related  knowledge  that  we  are  able 
to  see  so  much  more  with  the  mind  than  we  are  with 
the  eye. 

The  Process  of  Discrimination. — Let  us  suppose  that 
we  have  studied  in  this  way  a  bumblebee,  butterfly, 
squashbug,  housefly  and  dragonfly.  It  is  not  a  matter  of 
indifference  that  they  be  studied  in  a  certain  order,  be- 
cause certain  relations  manifest  themselves  readily  if 
thev  are  studied  in  a  certain  order,  which  do  not  appear 
if  thev  are  presented  in  a  difl:'erent  one.  When  we  have 
studied  individuals  of  these  kinds,  we  are  ready  for  the 
next  step.  We  need  to  notice  the  differences  which  have 
manifested  themselves  to  us  while  studying  the  different 
insects.  We  can  tabulate  the  differences  in  some  such 
form  as  the  following : 

Table  1 
Differences  Among  Insects. 


Grasshopper 

Butteifly 

Bumblebee 

Squash  bug 

Wings Straight 

Scaly 

Membrane 

Half 

Metamorphosis 

Direct 

Indirect 

Indirect 

Direct 

Mouth  parts  .  . 

Biting 

Slicking 

Biting  and 
Lapping 

Sucking 

Tllli;    (■.!•: XI'IKA I.    AllSTKACI'    MTllOX 


111 


Dragonfly 

Beetle 

Housefly 

Wings 

N'erved 

Sheath 

Two 

Metamorphosis 

Indirect 

Indirect 

Indirect 

Mouth  parts 

Biting 

Biting 

Sucking  and 
Piercing 

luiportawcc  of  Discriiiiiuatioii. — The  ]m-occss  by  which 
we  observe  differences  is  called  (liscriiiiiiiation.  It  is  an 
imiXTrtant  j^rocess  in  thinkino-.  Every  great  discovery 
has  arisen  from  the  recognition  of  finer  and  finer  dis- 
tinctions. A  good  example  is  f(^nnd  in  Lord  Rayleigh's 
discoverv  of  argon.  Lord  Rayleigh  weighed  nitrogen  that 
was  derived  from  the  air,  and  then  nitrogen  that  had 
been  obtained  from  chemical  compounds.  He  found  a 
small  Init  constant  difiference  between  the  two  weights. 
Otlier  men  had  observed  the  same  difiference,  but  to 
them  it  was  non-significant.  They  attributed  the  difTer- 
cnces  to  inaccuracies  in  weighing,  or  to  other  ordinary 
conditions.  But  in  1893  Lord  Rayleigh  studied  this  dif- 
ference, and  arrived  at  the  discovery  of  argon,  an  ele- 
ment previouslv  unknown,  and  which  constitutes  nearly 
one  ner  cent  of  the  air.  This  led  to  the  discovery  of 
other  substances  in  the  air.  neon,  krypton,  helium  and 
xenon.  These  discoveries  have  added  a  new  column  to 
the  table  of  eUinent^.  and  it  scenic  jiosvible,  at  least,  that 
ether  itself  will  find  a  i)Iace  in  this  column,  and  s<  >  fiiniisji 
a  tnfalh  diftercnt  explanation  of  the  universe  from  that 
which   h;is  jirevioiisly  ])re\  ailed,     .^ucli  are  the  great  re- 


328  PKINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

suits  that  follow  from  making  a  finer  discrimination  than 
has  been  previously  made,  and  such  is  the  process  by 
which  improvements  are  always  obtained. 

Ability  to  Discriminate  Is  a  Function  of  Grozcth. — 
The  growth  of  a  child's  knowledge  pursues  the  same 
course.  The  discriminations  that  a  young  child  makes 
are  not  very  fine,  and  it  is  worse  than  useless  to  attempt 
to  have  him  draw  delicate  distinctions  that  are  after- 
ward made  easily."  Sometimes,  on  the  plea  of  thorough- 
ness, we  undertake  to  induce  young  children  to  make 
distinctions  that  are  appropriate  and  possible  only  to 
children  of  a  more  mature  age.  The  growth  of  a  child's 
knowledge  and  power  to  think  is  parallel  to,  and  deter- 
mined by,  his  ability  to  make  finer  and  finer  discrimina- 
tions. 

Discrimination  Necessary  to  a  Critic. — The  person 
who  discriminates  well  is  a  good  critic.  This  is  a  quality 
especially  valuable  to  a  teacher.  It  is  frequently  asserted 
that  a  good  critic  is  not  a  creator  nor  a  constructive 
thinker  and  it  is  generally  true  that  the  two  qualities  of 
mind  exist  in  different  degrees  in  the  same  person ;  but 
the  function  of  the  critic  is  perhaps  as  important  as  is 
the  function  of  any  other  thinker. 

The  Process  of  Comparison. — We  must  now  examine 
another  process.  While  we  have  been  studying  these  dif- 
ferent animals  and  observing  how  they  differ  from  each 
other,  we  have  also  been  observing  how  they  resemble 
each  other.  We  see  that  each  has  three  body  divisions, 
segmented  abdomen,  seventeen  body-segments,  six  legs, 


Tllli   GENERAL    ABSTRACT    NOTION 


529 


jointed  appendages,  two  pairs  of  wings,  and  all  breathe 
by  spiracles.  We  might  observe  many  other  resemblances, 
which,  just  at  this  stage  of  our  study,  do  not  appeal  to 
us.  Thus  we  might  observe  that  all  are  composed  of 
cells,  have  white  blood,  are  bilaterally  symmetrical,  take 
solid  food,  exchange  carbon  dioxide  for  oxygen,  sexes 
are  separate,  and  many  other  things.  We  may  express 
these  resemblances  in  the  following  table : 

Table  II. 
Resemblances  Among  Insects 

Three  bod}^  divisions. 

Seventeen   body   segments. 

Segmented  abdomen. 

Three  pairs  of  legs. 
Grasshopper  Jointed  appendages. 

Butterfly  One  pair  of  antennae. 

Bumblebee  Compound  eyes. 

Squash   bug      ^   Jaws  move  sideways. 
Dragonfly  Two  pairs  of  wings. 

Beetle  Breathe  by  spiracles. 

Housefly  External   chitinous   skeleton. 

Double  nerve  cord  and  ganglia. 

White  blood. 

Reproduce  by  eggs. 

Bilaterally  symmetrical. 

A  General  Abstract  Notion  the  Sum  of  Resemblances. 
^All  animals  tliat  we  have  studied  manifest  these  char- 
acteristics. We  may  group  the  characteristics  together 
and  use  one  word  to  designate  their  sum.  We  may  em- 
ploy the  word  insect  to  mean  the  sum  of  the  characters 
that  are  common  to  all  the  animals  studied.  We  have 
now  a  way  of  expressing  by  a  single  word  everything 
that   is    included    in    the   table   of   resemblance   and   this 


330  riaNCirLi:s  of  teaching 

word  expresses  the  general  abstract  notion,  it  is  general 
because  it  applies  to  every  individual  which  possesses 
the  characteristics  found  in  our  table  of  resemblances. 
It  is  abstract  because  it  has  been  formed  from  a  table 
of  characters  abstracted  from  the  individuals  studied. 
Whenever  I  use  the  term  insect.  1  mean  the  things  that 
are  included  in  the  table  of  resemblances.  The  general 
al)>tract  notion  is  always  formed  from  a  table  of  resem- 
blances, either  explicitly  stated  as  in  this  case,  or, — which 
is  very  much  more  common, — more  or  less  clearly  im- 
plied, and  unconsciously  recognized. 

Different  Contents  for  the  Same  Word. — It  will  be 
seen  from  the  above  analysis  that  our  general  abstract 
notion  will  be  full  and  complete,  or  weak  and  imperfect, 
according  to  whether  the  number  of  characteristics  in- 
cluded in  our  table  of  resemblances  is  great  or  small.  No 
two  persons  are  likely  to  have  exactly  the  same  table  of 
resemblances,  and  consequently  the  word,  or  the  com- 
mon noun  which  expresses  it,  will  have  somewhat  dif- 
ferent meanings  to  different  individuals.  Nearly  all  of 
our  general  abstract  notions  are  formed  from  seeing  or 
hearing  words  used  in  different  relations.  Much  reading, 
properly  interpreted  by  our  experience,  enables  us  to 
form  the  greater  number  of  our  general  abstract  notions. 

Difference  Bef7ceeii  .V/;/q;//ar  Concrete  and  Genera! 
.Ibstract. — The  singular  concrete  notion  is  formed  b\  a 
ciimbination  of  all  tlic  sensations  that  we  rccei\-e  from 
an  (ibject.  These  sensations  associate  themselves  witli 
each    (iflicr   accnvding   to    (lie   law   of   resemblance.     All 


'II 1 1'.    CRXF.RAI,    AI'.STlvWCT    XOTION'  3.U 

the  (|ualitics  w  illi  w  liicli  [\\c  scii>alii)n>  make  us  ac(|uaiiilril 
exist  in  the  same  place  and  at  the  same  time,  ami  so  are 
associated  by  that  law  of  resemblance.  The  i^eneral  ab- 
stract notion  is  formed  from  a  combination  of  sensations 
which  correspond  to  (lualities  belonging"  to  different  ob- 
jects, and  from  which  the  table  of  resemblances  is  formed. 
It  is  easier  to  see  how  the  process  of  forming  the  general 
abstract  notion  is  a  process  of  the  recognition  of  re- 
semblances than  it  is  to  see  that  the  singular  concrete 
notion  is  formed  in  the  same  way. 

Can  a  General  Abstract  Xotion  be  Derived  from  a 
Siiii^le  Object. — If  there  is  but  one  thing  in  the  world 
of  a  particular  kind  it  may  be  a  fair  question  whether 
the  notion  that  we  get  of  it  is  a  singular  concrete  or  a 
general  abstract.  Tlicre  is  l)ut  one  moon.  Do  we  get 
a  general  abstract  notion  of  the  moon  from  studying  it, 
or  is  it  a  singular  concrete  notion  ?  When  there  was 
but  one  war  vessel  called  the  Monitor,  could  we  have  a 
eeneral  abstract  notion  of  monitor,  or  would  it  be  proper 
to  speak,  as  we  came  to  do  afterward,  of  a  monitor?  The 
same  change  has  occurred  in  the  word  Geyser.  Once  it 
meant  the  name  of  a  particular  spring  of  peculiar  char- 
acter in  Iceland.  Other  springs  resembling  it  were  dis- 
covered, and  the  name  geyser  was  applied  to  all  of  them. 
It  seems  inadvisable  to  consider  a  notion  that  has  only 
one  representative  as  a  general  abstract  notion. 

lias  a  General  Abstract  Xotion  .  Iny  Actual  Represen- 
tation!'— Similar  to  the  above  question  is  the  one  whether 
a  general  abstract  notion  has  any  material  representative. 


332  PRIXCIPLF.S   OF   TEACHING 

Is  there  a  general  abstract  cow  ?  This  is  purely  a  matter 
of  definition.  Those  who  affirm  that  there  is  a  material 
representative  of  a  general  abstract  notion  assert  that 
anything  which  contains  all  the  characters  represented  in 
the  table  of  resemblances  is  a  material  representative  of 
the  general  abstract  notion,  no  matter  how  many  char- 
acters it  also  contains  which  are  not  found  in  the  table. 
Those  who  affirm  that  the  general  abstract  notion  has 
no  material  thing  to  correspond  to  it  also  affirm  that  the 
general  abstract  notion  is  merely  the  sum  of  the  resem- 
blances, and  anything  that  possesses  any  other  characters 
caimot  represent  the  notion.  It  avoids  some  difficulties 
to  consider  the  general  abstract  notion  as  merely  the  sum 
of  characters,  and  this  is  equivalent  to  saying  that  it  has 
no  material  representative.  There  is  no  general  abstract 
cow.  The  use  of  the  term  ''general  abstract  notion"  im- 
plies the  same  thing.  It  is  a  notion  abstracted  from  the 
objects  that  are  studied,  and  it  is  obtained  by  considering 
the  abstracted  qualities. 

Inif^ortancc  of  Coinparisou. — The  process  of  perceiv- 
ing resemblances  is  called  comparison.  The  person  who 
can  perceive  resemblances  well  is  the  person  who  becomes 
a  philosopher.  The  ability  to  perceive  resemblances  may 
not  exist  in  equal  degree  with  the  ability  to  perceive  dif- 
ferences. The  critic  is  seldom  a  philosopher,  and  a  phil- 
osopher is  not  likely  to  be  a  good  critic.  These  two  pro- 
cesses of  discrimination  and  comparison  lie  at  the  founda- 
tion of  all  processes  of  learning,  and  there  is  no  other  way 
to  learn   anything   except   by   observing   how    it   is   like 


I 


THE   GENERAL    ABSTRACT   NOTIOX  333 

something  else  or  how  it  differs  from  something  else. 
This  is  merely  another  way  of  saying  that  all  knowledge 
is  relative,  and  that  all  processes  of  thinking  and  learning 
consist  in  the  perception  of  relations. 

Logical  Definition. — From  our  tables  of  resemblances 
and  differences  we  may  make  a  logical  definition.  If  we 
wish  to  define  beetle  we  may  say  that  a  beetle  is  an  in- 
sect   .     When  we  have  said  this  we  have  said  a 

good  deal,  but  we  have  not  made  a  definition  of  a  beetle. 
When  we  have  said  that  a  beetle  is  an  insect,  we  have  said 
all  the  things  that  are  included  in  the  table  of  resem- 
blances, and  have  distinguished  it  from  those  animals 
which  do  not  have  the  characters  expressed  by  the  table, 
but  we  have  not  discriminated  it  from  other  insects.  A 
fly  is  an  insect  and  a  bumblebee  is  an  insect.  We  need 
to  distinguish  the  beetle  from  these  animals,  and  from 
the  other  insects  which  we  have  studied  in  making  the 
table  of  resemblances.  We  need  to  look  at  the  table  of 
differences  and  to  insert  into  our  definition  the  charac- 
ters in  which  we  found  the  beetle  to  dift'er  from  other 
insects.  A  beetle  is  an  insect  which  has  sheath  wings, 
biting  mouthparts  and  which  undergoes  an  indirect  meta- 
morphosis. 

Logical  and  PsycJiological  Concepts. — Some  writers 
distinguish  logical  from  psychological  concepts,  or  gen- 
eral notions.  There  is  no  validity  in  this  distinction.  A 
logical  concept  is  merely  one  that  is  clear  and  definite 
and  which  can  be  defined.  A  psychological  concept,  as 
these  writers  use  the  term,  is  a  general  abstract  notion 


334  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACillXG 

that  has  not  become  sufficiently  clear  to  admit  of  defini- 
tion. We  may  recognize  all  degrees  of  definiteness  in 
general  abstract  notions,  and  it  is  not  only  hairsplitting 
but  absolutely  misleading'  to  undertake  lo  discriminate 
one  kind  from  another  by  means  of  the  degrees  of  defi- 
niteness in  the  concept. 

Genus  and  Differentia. — Every  real  definition  is  made 
in  this  way.  It  is  made  from  a  table  of  differences,  but 
it  must  have  as  its  predicate  nominative  the  general  ab- 
stract notion  derived  from  the  table  of  resemblances. 
The  predicate  nominative  that  is  so  used  is  called  the 
genus ;  and  the  characters  which  arc  found  in  the  table 
of  dift'erences,  and  which  discriminate  the  thing  we  are 
defining  from  the  other  things  that  are  included  in  the 
same  genus  are  called  the  dift'erentia.  A  logical  defini- 
tion, then,  is  a  statement  which  manifests  the  nature  of 
the  thing  defined.  It  always  includes  two  things,  the 
name  of  the  genus,  or  the  comprehensive  group  to  which 
the  thing  we  are  defining  belongs,  and  the  differentia, 
or  characteristics  which  separate  the  thing  we  are  tie- 
fining  from  other  members  of  the  same  group.  ]\Iost  of 
our  dictionary  definitions  are  not  definitions  at  all,  but 
statements  of  distinguishing  features  by  which  we  may 
be  able  to  identify  the  thino-  that  is  defined.  \\'hen  I  say 
that  Mr.  Brown's  house  is  number  926  Forest  Avenue, 
I  have  not  made  a  definition  of  Mr.  llrown's  house  nor 
a  statement  which  manifests  its  nature,  although  I  have 
enabled  a  person  to  find  the  place.  Our  dictionary  defi- 
nitions are  QeneralK-  statements  of  this  kind. 


Till".    (II'.XICKAL    AliSTKAC'l'    XOTIO-X 


/'rof^t'itit'S  (if  llic  (iriirrnl  .Ihslrdct  iXolioit.  I  .el  us 
examine  a  lillK'  laillicr  the  inninTlir^  nf  \\\v  ^ciU'ial  al)- 
stracl  noiion. 

Taiu.k  TTT. 

Differences  x\moxg  Arthropods. 


Grasshopper              Crawfish 

Spider 

Centipede 

Skeleton 

Chitinous         Calcareous 

Chitinous 

Chitinous 

Body  Divisions 

Three               Two 

Two 

One  (differ- 
entiated) 

Number  of  legs 

Six 

Ten 

Eight 

Sixty-two 

Antennae 

One  pair 

Two  pairs 

None 

One  pair 

Eves 

Compound 

Compound 

Simple 

Compound 

/ 

(or  none) 

Breathing 

Spiracles          Gills 

So-called 
lung 

Spiracles 

Body  segments 

Seventeen        Twenty-one 

Undeter- 
mined 

(Thirty- 
six?) 

Wings 

Two  pairs 

None 

None 

None 

Tadli-:  I\\ 

Resemblaxci:s   of   Arthropods.  • 
Ji)iiitt(l  appendages. 


/  JDriittcl  appendages. 

-asshopperV  l:'"''^  '"V'*;  "/'^^^'''-^ 
awfish         /  i'-xternal  skeleton. 

)  \Mii 
f  Rcpi 
V  Bila1 


Grass 
Craw 

Spider 
Centipede 


Double  nerve  cord  and  ganglia, 
te  bloofl. 
produce  by   eggs, 
iterally  syminetrical. 

Here  wc  have  tabic  ITT.  which  represents  tlic  clifFcr- 
cnccs   existing;-  Ijctwcen   the  groups  of  .  Irtliropoila,  and 


3,^6  I'RIXCII'LES   or    TKACIIIXG 

table  IV,  which  represents  the  resemblances  among  the 
same  animals.  We  derive  the  general  abstract  notion  of 
Arthropoda  from  table  IV.  We  can  make  a  logical  de- 
finition of  insect  from  table  III,  using  as  the  predicate 
nominative  the  general  abstract  notion  Arthropod.  If 
Ave  compare  table  II  with  tables  III  and  IV,  we  shall  see 
that  the  table  of  resemblances  has  become  shorter,  and 
the  table  of  differences  has  become  longer.  In  fact,  we 
may  recognize  that  tables  III  and  lA'  consist  of  the  char- 
acters found  in  table  II  divided  up  between  them. 

Another  Viczv  of  the  General  Abstract  Notion. — In- 
stead of  regarding  the  general  abstract  notion  as  consist- 
ing of  the  sum  of  qualities  associated  by  the  law  of  resem- 
blance, many  writers  on  psychology  consider  that  it  is 
the  result  of  a  single  act  of  perception  or  apperception. 
They  declare  that  the  first  consciousness  of  a  child  is  a 
vague,  undifferentiated  whole,  and  that  the  process  of  its 
development  is  a  process  of  setting  apart  and  rendering 
consciously  clear  the  dift'erent  elements  that  have  been 
apperceived.  Such  a  conception  of  the  process  of  form- 
ing a  general  abstract  notion  is  neither  demonstrable  nor 
capable  of  being  understood.  It  involves  the  assumption 
of  a  metaphysical  faculty  of  the  soul,  which  controls  the 
process  of  association,  and  it  appears  to  be  an  indication 
of  a  relapse  into  the  old  unscientific  psychology  of  the 
past.  This  faculty  which  differentiates  and  sets  apart 
the  elements  of  the  undifferentiated  mass,  is  called  ap- 
perception. The  word  is  used  here  with  a  different  mean- 
ing from  the  Herbartian  sense  described  in  Chapter  XL 


THE  t;i':.\i:K.\i.  akstkact  aotion  337 

The  process  described  in  this  chapter  is  clear,  capable  of 
being  understood,  and  is  the  one  which  is  always  acted 
upon  in  practice  by  students  of  botany  and  zoology  who 
have  more  occasion  to  classify  and  describe  general  ab- 
stract notions  than  do  any  other  persons. 

Com  prehension  and  Extension. — The  general  abstract 
notion  of  arthropod  is  derived  from  a  shorter  table  of  re- 
semblances than  is  the  general  abstract  notion  of  insect. 
The  general  abstract  notion  of  insect  contains  more 
characteristics  than  does  the  general  abstract  notion  of 
arthropod.  This  is  expressed  by  saying  that  the  general 
abstract  notion  of  insect  has  greater  comprehension  than 
does  the  general  abstract  notion  of  arthropod.  By  the 
comprehension  of  a  notion  we  mean  the  number  of  char- 
acters that  are  included  in  it.  But  there  are  a  greater 
number  of  individuals  to  which  the  term  arthropod  will 
apply  than  there  are  to  which  the  term  insect  will  apply. 
Arthropod  includes  all  the  animals  that  are  insects,  and 
many  more  besides.  We  may  express  this  fact  by  saying 
that  the  notion  arthropod  has  greater  extension  than  does 
the  notion  insect.  By  the  extension  of  a  notion  we  mean 
the  number  of  individuals  to  which  it  may  apply,  or  the 
number  of  individuals  that  may  be  included  in  the  no- 
tion. It  will  be  seen  that  as  the  number  of  individuals 
increases,  the  number  of  characteristics  that  are  likely 
to  be  common  to  all  of  them  decreases.  Other  things 
being  as  they  are,  the  greater  the  extension  of  the  no- 
tion, the  less  the  comprehension  ;  and  the  greater  the  com- 
prehension, the  less  the  extension.  This  is  the  general  rule. 


338  rinxciPLES  of  teaciiixg 

althoiiQli  in  its  applicaticins  it  is  not  always  strictly  true. 

'I'liis  entire  process  which  has  been  descrihi'd  in  the 
formation  of  a  s^encral  ah>tract  notion  is  called  the 
process  of  g-cneralization.  ( icneralization  results,  not  al- 
ways mereh-  in  the  formation  of  a  oencral  abstract  no- 
tion, hut  it  may  result  in  the  statement  <>f  a  principle  or 
a  law.  We  have  emploxed  for  our  illustration  the  notion 
expressed  by  a  common  noun,  but  it  will  be  seen  that  the 
meaning  of  a  verb  or  a  preposition  is  as  truly  a  general 
abstract  notion  as  is  the  meaning  of  a  noun. 

Notions  Have  Different  Ranks. — One  other  property 
of  the  general  abstract  notion  is  discoverecl  by  the  ex- 
amination of  tables  II.  Ill,  and  I\'.  General  abstract 
notions  are  not  all  of  the  same  rank.  The  notion  insect 
is  of  a  different  rank  from  the  notion  arthropod.  The 
notion  insect  is  included  in  the  notion  arthropod.  Stu- 
dents of  zoology  and  botany,  those  sciences  which  are 
especially  classificatory.  have  devised  means  of  express- 
ing the  ranks  of  the  different  notions  which  they  employ 
in  classification.  The  grasshopper  that  we  study  is  an 
individual.  Individuals  that  are  very  nearly  alike,  as 
nearly  alike  as  parent  and  oft'spring.  are  of  the  same 
species,  and  are  called  by  the  same  name.  The  specific 
name  of  the  grasshopper  that  we  study  may  be  femuv- 
rnhrum.  Grasshoppers  may  diff'er  specifically,  and  yet 
so  closely  resemble  each  other  that  we  may  call  them  by 
different  specific  names,  but  group  them  into  the  same 
genus.  Thus  the  genus  of  our  grasshopper  may  be 
MeJanopIus.    Diff'erent  genera  may  be  so  nearly  alike  that 


THE  gkxi:kal  adstkact  notion  339 

wc  group  them  into  the  same  family,  the  grasshopper 
famil} .  and  we  may  name  this  family  Acrididac.  Families 
that  are  alike  may  be  grouped  together  and  another  gen- 
eral abstract  notion  of  greater  extension  be  formed.  The 
families  that  are  like  the  grasshopper  family  may  be 
grouped  together  into  an  order,  and  we  may  name  this 
grasshopper  order  Orthoptcra.  Orders  that  are  alike 
make  up  a  class,  and  the  class  to  which  the  grasshopper 
belongs  is  the  class  fnsccta.  Classes  that  are  alike  consti- 
tute a  branch,  and  the  name  of  the  branch  to  which  the 
grasshopper  belongs  is  called  Arthropoda.  P.ranches  that 
arc  alike  constittite  a  kingdom,  and  the  kingdom  to  which 
the  grasshopper  belongs  is  the  Animal  Kiir^doin.  Thus 
wc  see  that  the  different  ranks  into  which  the  general 
abstract  notions  fall  are  called  species,  genus,  family, 
order,  class,  branch  and  kingdom. 

Other  Divisions. — Many  other  divisions  are  employed, 
such  as  sub-class,  cohort,  tribe,  etc..  but  these  are  suf- 
ficient to  indicate  for  us  the  different  ranks  of  the  gen- 
eral abstract  notions.  Thus  the  names  of  the  gen- 
eral abstract  notions  derived  from  the  tables  of  resem- 
blances among  animals  that  resemble  the  grasshopper 
less  and  less  closely  are  femur-rubrum.  melanoplus.  acrid- 
idae.  orthoptera,  insect,  arthropoda  and  animal.  These 
general  abstract  notions  represent  dift"crcnt  ranks,  each 
beinof  subordinate,  and  having  less  extension  than  the 
one  next  succeeding  it. 

The  Content  of  Nouns. — Common  nouns  express  no- 
tions nearlv  all  "f  wliich  arc  formed  by  the  process  here 


340  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

described.  Our  understanding  of  such  a  word  will  be 
full  and  adequate  or  incomplete  and  unsatisfactory  ac- 
cording as  our  table  of  resemblances  from  wliicli  the 
notion  is  derived  is  long  or  short.  Many  ludicrous  mis- 
takes are  made  in  school  and  upon  examination  papers  in 
consequence  of  the  meagerness  of  the  content  of  some  of 
these  words  which  express  general  aTastract  notions.  The 
£rirl  who  wrote  that  Noah  Webster  founded  the  diction- 
ary.  had  an  inadequate  content  for  the  word  founded. 
So  the  pupil  who  said  that  Tom  Paine  invented  the  Pacific 
Railroad,  had  no  satisfactory  meaning  for  the  word  in- 
vented, and  the  one  who  wrote  that  Arnold  was  engaged 
in  a  plot  to  embezzle  the  United  States  was  likewise  de- 
ficient in  her  general  abstract  notion  expressed  by  the 
word  embezzle. 

Hoiv  Acquire  the  Meaning  of  Words. — One  of  the 
most  important  and  at  the  same  time  most  difficult  things 
for  the  teacher  to  do  is  to  cause  the  children  to  acquire 
adequate  general  abstract  notions,  or  to  fill  up  common 
nouns  with  a  satisfactory  content.  The  only  suggestions 
that  can  be  given  about  the  method  of  doing  this  is  to  say 
that  the  child  must  use  the  word  in  a  sufficient  number 
of  relations,  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  experience  with 
things  to  enable  him  to  interpret  what  he  reads ;  that 
is,  he  must  acquire  as  long  a  table  of  resemblances  as 
possible.  Much  reading  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  ex- 
perience with  things  to  enable  him  to  interpret  what  he 
reads  is  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  filling  up  words  with 
a  content.    It  cannot  be  done  very  satisfactorily  by  means 


I  111'    (,i;.\I.K.\L    AKSIKAer    NOllOX  .Ul 

of  dictionary  detinitions.  Hence  it  is  that  children  who 
rcatl  the  most  arc  hkely  to  he  those  children  who  have 
the  best  understanding,  who  know  most  satisfactorily 
the  meanings  of  words,  and  who  are  able  to  see  most 
easilv  the  relations  that  exist  in  the  things  under  consid- 
eration. The  notion  is  formed  by  abstracting  the  com- 
mon elements  from  the  difiterent  uses  in  which  the  word 
is  employed.  This  is  usually  an  unconscious  process  and 
not  at  all  the  formal  device  employed  in  our  illustration. 
Rcadiiii;  and  Experience. — The  word  is  merely  one  of 
the  properties  of  the  general  abstract 'notion.  It  w'ould 
avoid  many  dangers  in  the  use  of  the  word  if  other 
properties  of  the  notion,  and  other  elements  that  enter 
into  its  constitution,  might  be  experienced  before  the 
word  is  obtained.  Tliis  is  the  justification  for  the  aphor- 
ism wliich  says  the  thing  should  be  given  before  its  sym- 
bol, the  meaning  before  the  word.  But  in  much  the  larger 
number  of  cases,"  the  word  is  the  first  characteristic  of 
the  general  abstract  notion  that  the  child  obtains.  Hence 
it  follows  that  a  very  large  part  of  the  teacher's  -duty 
necessarily  consists  in  causing  the  child  to  fill  up  his 
emptv  words  with  a  content.  Reading  must  be  the  chief 
reliance  of  the  teacher,  although  reading,  without  the 
proper  kind  of  experience  that  will  enable  the  child  to 
interpret  or  see  the  meaning  of  what  he  reads,  is  likely 
to  be  of  little  value.  First  hand  knowledge,  contact  with 
things,  is  essential,  and  in  many  cases  difficult  to  secure. 
General  Abstract  Notions  Necessary  to  Thinking. — 
]\Ianv   languages   of   uncivilized   peoples   have  very   few 


342  PRTN(.:ii'Li:s  oi-  Ti:.\ciiixr, 

comiiioii  nriniT^.  1 1  is  tinnccessary  to  say  tliat  such  lans:;- 
iiages  have  l)C'cii  (Uvclnpcd  h\-  i)e'<)])k'  wiio  have  ver\'  httle 
capacity  for  thout^lil.  It  is  inipossihle  to  carry  our  think- 
ing processes  very  far  without  the  employment  of  com- 
mon nouns,  expressing  general  abstract  notions.  It  is  a 
labor  saving  device.  If  we  were  compelled  to  substitute 
for  everv  common  noun  the  table  of  resemblances  which 
it  is  used  to  express  and  from  which  it  has  been  derived, 
our  use  of  language  would  be  very  meager  and  we  should 
be  quite  helpless  in  thinking. 

Dmiircr  in  the  Use  of  Common  Nouns. — Yet  there  is 
a  positive  danger  in  the  use  of  common  nouns.  We  are 
likely  to  assert  of  an  individual  object,  more  than  is  in- 
cluded in  the  class,  merely  because  some  other  member  of 
the  class  has  the  characteristics  which  we  assert  of  it. 
Because  it  is  like  some  other  member  of  the  class  in  the 
class  characteristics,  we  are  likely  to  assert  that  it  is  like 
other  members  of  the  class  in  characteristics  which  do 
not  enter  into  the  constitution  of  the  general  abstract  no- 
tion which  the  name  of  the  class  expresses.  (Jur  under- 
standing of  the  general  abstract  notion  is  at  once  too 
broad,  since  we  make  it  include  too  many  characteristics, 
and  at  the  same  time  too  narrow,  for  we  do  not  know 
all  the  characteristics  which  make  it  up. 

Common-Nouns  Have  Different  Meanings  for  Differ- 
ent Persons. — Besides  this,  no  two  persons  are  likely  to 
have  exactly  the  same  content  for  a  word.  The  list  of 
resemblances  which  constitute  the  general  abstract  no- 
tion is  seldom  the  sair.e  for  anv  two  individuals.     Hence 


Till-:  tiKNi':KAi.  AiiSTKAcr  NUT  lux  343 

tlic\  have  necessarily  dilifercm  contents,  and  different 
meanings  for  the  same  word.  Notwithstandinj;-  these 
serions  defects,  the  general  abstract  notion  is  indispens- 
able to  our  thinking. 

Synopsis. 

1.  The  general  abstract  notion  is  the  content  of  a 
common  noun.  It  is  formed  from  a  table  of  resemblances 
seen  to  exist  between  the  individuals  that  are  compared. 

2.  In  the  formation  of  a  general  abstract  notion,  we 
must  employ  the  processes  of  abstraction,  analysis,  dis- 
crimination and  comparison. 

3.  The  general  abstract  notion  is  the  sum  of  the  re- 
semblances existing  among  the  things  which  we  com- 
pare. 

4.  A  logical  definition  includes  the  general  abstract 
notion,  or  name  of  the  class  to  which  the  thing  we  are 
defining  belongs,  and  the  differences  which  distinguish 
it  from  other  members  of  the  same  class. 

5.  Nearly  all  of  our  general  abstract  notions,  that  is, 
the  meanings  of  common  nouns,  are  obtained  by  reading 
words  in  the  various  relations  in  which  they  are  used. 

6.  A  large  part  of  the  teacher's  difficulty  is  found 
in  the  attempt  to  have  children  fill  up  the  word  with  a 
content ;  to  acquire  an  adequate  meaning  for  common 
nouns ;  to  make  general  abstract   notions. 

7.  Ncarh-  all  (tf  the  ludicrous  errors  in  examination 
papers  arise  from  llie  ina<U'(|nae\  of  llie  general  alj^tract 
notions  which  words  are  empl<'\e<l  tu  ex])ress. 


CHAPTER  XX 

The  Growth  of  Children. 

Importance  of  Child  Study. — Undoubtedly,  the  great- 
est improvements  in  education  and  in  teaching  in  the  past 
twenty-five  years  have  come,  not  from  the  study  of  sub- 
jects, but  from  the  study  of  children.  Whatever  improve- 
ments in  teaching  have  originated  in  the  study  of  the  sub- 
jects of  instruction  have  been  made  in  consequence  of 
studying  the  subjects  for  the  purpose  of  adapting  them 
better  to  the  child.  The  child  is  constantly  changing 
his  nature  and  his  disposition  as  he  grows  older  ;  and 
the  subject  matter  and  ideal  of  education  must  be  changed 
to  suit  his  changing  nature,  and  to  adapt  it  to  the  particu- 
lar stage  of  development  in  which  he  is  found.  It  is  a 
fundamental  principle  of  teaching  that  the  nature  of 
the  child  shall  determine  both  the  subject  that  shall  be 
taught  and  the  methods  of  teaching.  Hence  arises  the 
imperative  necessity  for  making  the  best  possible  study 
of  the  child  in  all  his  various  relations. 

RcJafinii  Bctzvccii  Bodily  GroKih  and  Mental  Be- 
vel op  men  t. — We  may  readily  understand  that  there  is 
a  relatiiMi  between  the  growth  of  the  body  and  the  growth 
of  the  mind.  Xot  only  is  there  a  ]iarallclism,  but  it  ap- 
pears that  there  is  a  more  immediate  connection  between 

344 


THE    GROWTH    OF    CHILDREN  345 

the  two  than  the  word  paralleHsm  implies.  A  study  of 
the  ph\sical  growth  of  children  will  help  ns  to  interpret 
the  changes  in  the  mental  processes  which  we  call  growth. 

U'!hit  is  MccDit  by  Growth. — We  may  mean  by  growth 
one  of  two  things :  We  may  mean  an  increase  in  size 
or  increase  in  complexity  of  organization.  We  may  speak 
of  the  growth  of  a  butterfly  when  it  is  changed  from  the 
caterpillar  condition  to  the  imago  form,  although  there 
has  been  no  increase  in  size.  All  the  time  that  has  been 
passed  in  the  chrysalis  condition  has  been  employed  in 
reorganizing  the  material  of  the  body. 

This  is  one  sense  of  the  word  growth,  although  it  is 
not  the  more  common  one.  The  ordinary  use  of  the 
word  means  increase  in  size,  and  this  increase  may  be  de- 
termined either  by  measuring  the  extent  of  the  body  in 
one  or  more  directions,  or  by  weighing.  Usually,  in  the 
case  of  children,  increase  in  size  is  judged  by  measuring 
the  height,  and  l)y  taking  the  weight.  We  need  to  as- 
certain both  height  and  weight,  for  we  find  that  increase 
in  height  is  not  necessarily  coordinate  with  increase  in 
weight. 

Sise  of  Boys  and  Girls. — At  birth  there  is  a  difference 
in  the  size  of  boys  and  girls.  On  the  average  the  boy 
is  slightly  taller  and  heavier  than  the  girl.  By  measuring 
and  weighing  a  thousand  boys  and  girls  at  birth,  and 
taking  the  average  measurement'-,  it  lias  been  fomid  that 
the  average  bov  at  birth  is  about  19.68  inches  tall  and 
weighs  7.3  potmds,  and  the  average  girl  at  birth  is  19.48 
inches  tall  and  weighs  7.1  pounds.     At  the  end  of  the 


346 


I'KIXCll'Lli.S   UF    TliAClIING 


Hrst  year  the  boy  is  about  27  incbes  tall  and  weigbs  21.9 
pouiKls,  wbilc  tlie  girl  bas  grown  to  tlie  bcigbt  of  20.88 
incbes  and  weigbs  21.3  pounds.  Tbus  it  will  be  seen 
tbat  in  tbe  first  year  of  life  tbe  beight  of  tbe  cbild  bas  in- 
creased more  tban  seven  incbes.  and  its  weight  bas  almost 
trebled.  In  no  subsequent  year  will  tbere  be  anytbing 
like  tbis  same  amount  of  increase  in  beigbt,  nor  tbe 
same  relative  increase  in  weigbt.  Tbe  growtb  in  tbe 
second  year  is  still  great,  but  scarcely  more  tban  balf 
tbe  amount  of  increase  in  beigbt  and  weigbt  tbat  is  ob- 
served in  tbe  first  year. 

Table  of  Increase  in  Height. 


BOYS 

GIRLS 

Age 

Height  in 
inches 

Actual 

increase  in 

height 

Per  cent 

1    Height  in 
inches 

Actual 

increase  in 

height 

Per  cent  of 
increase 

51, 

41.7 

41.3 

6^4 

43.9 

9    9 

5.3 

43.3 

2.0 

4,8 

ly? 

46.0 

2.1 

4.8 

45.7 

2.4 

5.5 

SH 

48.8 

2.8 

6.1 

47.7 

2.0 

4.4 

9K 

50.0 

1.2 

2.5 

49.7 

2.0 

4.2 

lOK 

51.9 

1.9 

3.8 

51.7 

2.0 

4.0 

lli^ 

53.6 

1.7 

3.3 

53.8 

2.1 

4.1 

12V< 

55.4 

1.8 

3.4 

56.1 

2.3 

4.3 

i3H. 

57.5 

2.1 

3,8 

58.5 

2.4 

4.3 

14K 

60.0 

2.5 

4.3 

60.4 

1.9 

3.2 

15  J< 

62.9 

2.9 

4.8 

61.6 

1.2 

2.0 

16H. 

64.9 

2.0 

3.2 

62.2 

0.6 

1.0 

nv? 

66.5 

1.6 

2.5 

62.7 

0.5 

0.8 

iSH 

67.4 

0 . 9 

1.4 

Illl-:    CKdWTII    HI'    (   II  ll.likl'ZN 

j;i.|-,  ()i    I  .\(  Ki:  ASIC  i\   \\  I'lcirr. 


M7 


BOYS 

GIRLS 

Age 

Weight 

Actual 

Per  cent  of 

Weight 

Actual 

Per  cent 

increase 

increase 

in  pounds 

gain 

of  gain 

6H 

45.2 

43.4 

7H 

49.5 

4.3 

9.5 

47.7 

4.3 

9.9 

84 

54.5 

5.0 

10.1 

52.5 

4.8 

10.0 

94 

59.6 

5.1 

9.3 

57.4 

4.9 

9.3 

1014 

65.4 

5.8 

9.7 

62.9 

5.5 

9.6 

114 

70.7 

5.3 

8.1 

69.5 

6.6 

10.5 

124 

76.9 

6.2 

8.7 

78.7 

9.2 

13.2 

134 

84.8 

7.9 

10.3 

88.7 

10.0 

12.7 

141^ 

95.2 

10.4 

12.3 

98.3 

9.6 

11.9 

151, 

107.4 

12.2 

12.8 

106.7 

8.4 

8.5 

161,' 

121.0 

13.6 

12.7 

112.3 

5.6 

5.2 

17i< 

115.4 

3.1 

2.8 

181^ 

114.9 

J'ai'iotion  in  Rate  of  Growth. — At  the  end  of  the  sixth 
year,  the  hoy  has  increased  to  43.9  inches  in  height,  and 
weighs  4.5.20  pounds.  The  girl.  43.3  inches  in  height 
and  weighing  43.4  pounds,  is  still  surpassed  in  height  and 
weight  hy  the  boy.  At  twelve,  the  girl  has  passed  the  boy 
in  both  height  and  weight.  At  this  time  the  boy  is  55.4 
inches  tall  and  weighs  76.9  pounds,  while  the  girl  is  56.1 
inches  tall  and  weighs  78.7  pounds.  This  superiority  of 
the  girl  over  the  boy  arises  in  consequence  of  the  fact 
that  the  girl  has  entered  upon  a  period  of  rapid  growth 
in  the  twelfth  year,  which  is  not  entered  upon  by  the  boy 
for  nearly  two  years  afterward.  .So  for  a  period  of  about 
three  years  the  average  of  a  large  number  of  girls  shows 
greater  height  and  weight  than  does  the  average  of  a 
large  number  of  l)ovs  of  the  '^atue  acre.     At  the  end  of 


34S  rki.\(  ii'i.i;s  di'   ii^achixg 

the  tifteenth  year  the  l)oy  surpasses  the  girl  in  both  height 
anc!  weigin,  and  remains  larger  from  that  time  forward. 

Periodicity  of  (iro:ctli. —  In  looking  at  these  tables  of 
growth  we  shall  see  that  the  period  of  rapid  growth  for 
both  boys  and  girls  extends  over  a  period  of  about  three 
years,  in  each  year  of  which  an  increase  of  nearly  ten 
per  cent  is  made  in  both  height  and  weight.  The  table 
is  misleading  in  the  fact  that  it  involves  the  assumption 
that  there  is  such  an  average  individual,  when  there  is 
not.  The  table  makes  it  appear  that  there  is  an  increase 
of  nearly  ten  per  cent  in  each  one  of  the  three  years, 
while  the  fact  is  that  for  almost  every  one  of  the  boys 
and  girls  measured,  much  the  larger  part  of  the  growth 
of  these  three  years  occurs  in  a  period  of  one  year,  or  of 
eighteen  months.  The  increase  in  one  individual  in  one 
year  is  greater  than  any  table  of  averages  would  indi- 
cate. Any  particular  boy  is  likely  to  grow,  in  some  one 
of  these  years,  four,  five,  or  even  six  inches.  This  year 
may  be  the  thirteenth  for  some  boys,  the  fourteenth  for 
others,  and  the  fifteenth  for  still  others.  So,  while  the 
average  of  a  large  number  of  boys  is  about  three  inches 
in  one  year,  the  actual  growth  of  any  one  boy  in  some  of 
the  three  years  is  much  larger  than  the  average.  The 
same  thing  is  true  for  weight,  although  the  extremely 
rapid  increase  in  weight  appears  later  than  does  the  in- 
crease in  height. 

.liialoi^V  of  Plants. — Growth  in  children  is  not  uni- 
form, but  rhythmical,  or  occurs  at  intervals,  just  as  it 
does  in  plants.     Tf  a  growing  i)lant  be  measured,  it  will 


THE    GKOWTil    UK    ClllLUKliN  349 

be  seen  that  nearly  all  the  i^rowth  is  made  at  nioln,  and 
little  or  none  is  made  in  the  daytime.  This  mav  be  modi- 
fied bv  the  intinence  of  a  cloud\-  da\ ,  l)ut  in  o-eneral  it  is 
trne  that  Growth  in  height  of  a  plant  oceurs  mainlv  at 
night.  Bnt  even  in  the  growing-time  at  night  the  growth 
is  not  uniform.  In  one  plant  that  ma_\-  be  eited  as  an 
example,  three  periods  of  growth  were  observed  ever}- 
night.  The  first  one  was  the  longest  and  the  least  intense. 
The  second  one  was  shorter  and  more  intense,  ddie  third 
was  the  shortest  and  the  most  intense  of  the  three.  After 
this  third  jjeriod.  no  more  growth  was  observed  until  the 
following  night. 

First  Period  of  Rapid  Growth. — So  in  children  we 
may  observe  three,  or  possibly  fom-  periods  of  rapid 
growth  at  long  intervals,  separated  by  ]-)eriods  of  slower 
growth.  This  recurrence  of  periods  of  rapid  growth  at 
long  intervals  we  may  call  the  secular  rhythm.  The  first 
period  occurs  in  the  first  vear  and  is  the  most  intense 
and  most  clearly  marked  of  all  the  i)eriods.  After  the 
first  year  there  is  a  period  of  slower  growth  until  about 
the  age  of  seven,  when  there  is  another  period  of  rapid 
growth,  not  so  well  marked  and  not  so  intense  as  the 
first,  but  still  noticeably  greater  than  the  rate  of  growth 
immediately  preceding  and  following  this  period.  In 
some  children  this  period  may  occur  as  earlv  as  five  and 
a  half  years,  and  in  others  it  may  be  delayed  later  than 
seven.  The  beginning  of  this  period  marks  the  separa- 
tion between  the  period  of  infancy  and  the  period  of 
childhond. 


350  PRI.XCIl'LES   OF    TEACHING 

Adolescent  Period. — The  third  period  of  rapid  growth 
is  that  which  occurs  at  the  beginning  of  adolescence, 
and  occurs  in  girls  at  about  the  age  of  twelve  and  in 
boys  at  about  the  age  of  fourteen.  This  period  is  more 
intense  than  the  second,  but  not  so  intense  as  the  first. 
Growth  almost  ceases  at  the  age  of  sixteen  for  boys,  but 
there  is  a  tendency  to  resume  it  at  about  the  age  of 
twent}'-one.  If  we  can  recognize  this  fourth  period  it 
\\ill  Ik-  found  to  be  the  least  intense  of  the  four,  and 
noticeable  onl_\-  in  consequence  of  the  almost  cessation  in 
the  two  or  three  }ears  immediately  ]ireceding.  It  is 
almost  certain  not  to  be  observed  in  some  individuals. 

.■liiinial  KhyiJiui  of  Grozeth. — Besides  this  secular 
rhythm,  we  may  discover  an  animal  or  seasonal  varia- 
tion in  growth.  All.  or  nearly  all,  the  growth  that  a 
child  makes  in  height  in  one  year  is  made  in  the  months 
from  April  to  August,  scarcely  any  growth  in  height 
occurring  in  any  of  the  other  months.  The  growth  in 
weight  occurs  in  the  months  from  August  to  December 
and  but  'ittle  in  the  remainder  of  the  year.  From  Decem- 
ber to  April  there  is  little  or  no  growth  in  either  height 
or  weight. 

Monthly  Rhythm. — There  is  some  evidence  tending  to 
show  that  all  the  growth  which  occurs  in  height  and 
weight  in  the  proper  seasons  for  such  increase  occurs  in 
periods  extending  over  about  half  a  month.  Growth  will 
occur  for  about  two  weeks,  then  there  will  be  a  period 
of  no  growth  for  the  following  two  weeks.  This  may 
be   called   tlic   nionthh'   rlivllini.      Similarh'   it    is  believed 


Till".  ckowTii  oi-   c'iiii.i)Ki-:x  351 

tlial  all  llic  L^rowlli  in  wcit^lil  occurs  in  the  (la\lime,  and 
all  llu'  ^Towili  in  Iici^lit  is  made  al  iiij^lit.  If  tlicse  sup- 
jKtsitions  arc  ti'nc.  wc  nia\-  discii\'cr  al  least  toiir  different 
kinds  of  rli\  linns  in  the  uTowth  of  a  child. 


Showing  the  relative  proportion?  of  the  bod}-  in  child  and  adult. 
(  Langer.) 

Unsyuuiictrical  Cro-iCth. — Another  fact  of  f^rowth  is 
even  more  important.  Xot  all  parts  of  the  body  g-row 
to  the  same  dei^ree.  nor  do  all  parts  of  the  body  grow 
at  the  same  time.  (Growth  in  hcM^ht  and  weight  are 
only  two  measnrements  of  growth,  and  perhaps  they  are 
not  the  most  im])ortant.  .\  man  is  not  merely  a  child 
grown  tall.  The  proportions  of  the  body  of  a  child  are 
decidedly  different  from  the  proportions  of  a  man.  The 
head  of  a  child  grows  to  about  twice  its  linear  dimensions 
before  manhood,  while  the  entire  borh-  grows  to  about 


352  rKiNcii'Li:s  of  ticachixg 


three  times  its  linear  dimensions.  Xui  all  parts  of  the 
head  grow  in  the  same  jn-oportion.  While  the  entire  head 
grows  to  ahont  twice  its  linear  dimensions,  the  upper 
part  of  the  head  ^rows  to  only  about  157/100  of  the 
upper  part  of  the  head  of  a  child.  The  legs  grow  to 
about  472/100  of  the  legs  of  the  child.  The  arms  grow 
to  about  350/100  of  the  arms  of  a  child,  and  so  it  is 
with  every  organ  of  the  body.  The  different  organs 
bear  dift'erent  proportions  to  each  other  in  the  man  from 
what  they  do  in  tlie  child,  and  they  do  not  grow  at  the 
same  time.  At  first  one  organ  will  grow  rapidly.  Then, 
perhaps  for  a  number  of  years,  there  will  be  little  or  no 
increase  in  the  size  of  that  organ  while  other  organs  are 
growing. 

Growtli  of  flic  Heart. — -The  relation  of  the  capacity 
of  the  heart  to  the  arteries  at  birth  is  about  25  to  20. 
This  proportion  increases  gradually  until  the  time  just 
before  the  period  of  rapid  adolescent  grow^th  the  propor- 
tion is  about  56  to  20.  In  the  period  of  rapid  adolescent 
growth  the  proportion  rapidly  increases  to  97  to  20. 

Irregularity  of  Mental  Growth. — Without  assuming 
more  than  a  parallelism  Ixtween  the  bodily  growth  and 
mental  development,  thi'^  suid\-  of  the  irregularity  of 
growth  and  disproportion  in  the  development  of  different 
organs  would  lead  us  to  suspect  that  there  might  be  a 
corresponding  disproportion  in  the  development  of  the 
mental  processes.  The  different  mental  abilities  and  in- 
stincts changing  disproportionately  make  the  character 
of  the  child  a  constantly  changing  quantity,  and  necessi- 


Till::    (;KU\\  Til    OF    (JIULDKKX  oS3 

tate  a  corresponding  cliaiij^c  in  inclhods  of  treatment,  with 
an  appeal  to  dittcrcnt  motives  leading  to  action.  If 
growth  of  the  i)hy>ical  organism  occasions  and  condi- 
tions a  development  of  the  mental  processes,  then  an 
irregularity  of  grow  th  w  ill  ])roduce  a  corresponding  irreg- 
ularity in  mental  dexelopment.  A  recognition  of  this 
principle  will  explain  many  peculiarities  in  the  school 
work  of  a  child,  and  account  for  circumstances  that  have 
no  explanation  if  wc  assume  that  the  character  of  the 
child  remains  constant,  and  his  mental  development  is 
regular  and  uniform. 

Relation  of  Bodily  Grozcfh  and  Menial  Pozvcr. — It  is 
a  most  important  thing  for  teachers  to  know  the  rela- 
tions between  physical  growth  and  the  abilit\'  to  do  mental 
work  in  school.  Is  the  well-grown  child  a  better  pupil 
and  more  able  to  do  good  work  in  school  than  is  one 
who  is  small  and  undersized?  Shall  we  proportion  our 
school  work  and  grade  the  children  according  to  size? 
At  present  our  grading  is  altogether  on  an  intellectual 
basis,  and  size  and  condition  of  growth  have  nothing  to 
do  with  it.  Accordingly  we  find  in  the  first  grade  some 
children  who  are  taller  than  are  other  children  in  the 
eighth  grade. 

Children  Beloz^'  Grade  Mentally 'are  Smaller. — The  re- 
ports of  the  Chicago  Department  of  Child  Study  are 
significant  in  this  respect,  even  though  we  may  not  con- 
sider them  conclusive.  Investigation  of  several  thou- 
sand children  in  all  the  grades  show  that,  in  general, 
those  children  who  arc  at  and  above  grade  in  their  school 


354  I'lUNCii'LKS  OF  ti:aciiixg 

work  are  taller  and  heavier  than  those  who  are  below 
grade.  The  difference  is  not  \ery  ^reat.  Init  it  is  con- 
stant. This  nuan-  that  the  a\erai;e  i^rowth  of  all  the 
children  who  are  below  grade  is  less  than  the  average 
growth  of  the  children  of  the  same  age  who  are  at  or 
above  grade.  Of  conrse,  very  many  individtial  cases 
occur  which  do  not  comply  with  the  rule,  but  the  general 
average  makes  the  rule  conclusive. 

Criminal  Children  SinaJlcr. — A  comparison  of  the 
children  in  the  ordinary  school  with  the  children  in  the 
John  Worthy  school  emphasizes  the  relation  between 
growth  and  school  standing.  The  John  Worthy  school 
in  Chicago  is  the  school  attached  to  the  city  prison.  All 
the  boys  in  this  school  are  criminals  and  all  of  them 
are  below  grade,  most  of  them  far  below  grade.  Meas- 
urements show  that  the  height  and  weight  of  the  boys 
in  the  John  Worth}-  school  are  decidedly  below  those 
of  boys  of  the  same  age  in  the  ordinary  school,  even  of 
those  who  are  below  grade. 

The  Small  Bri^Jit  Child. — This  conclusion  that  large 
children  are  most  likely  to  be  the  brightest  and  mentally 
capable  of  doing  better  school  work  will  in  all  probability 
appear  unsatisfactory  to  m.-my  teachers.  Kvery  teacher 
has  probabh'  known  some  child  who  is  very  small  for 
his  age,  and  who  yet  is  the  brightest  pupil  in  his  class. 
When  a  visitor  enters  a  school  room  he  will  in  all  proba- 
bility pick  out  the  smallest  pupil  in  the  room  as  the 
brightest,  and  not  often  will  he  be  mistaken.  How  shall 
we  account   for  this  discrepancy?     Dr.   Christopher,  in 


THE    GROWTH    OF    CllILUREN  355 

ihc  reports  above  referred  U).  makes  the  suggestion  that 
such  cases  are  rather  pathological  than  normal.  His  sug- 
gestion means  that  precocity  is  in  the  nature  of  a  disease, 
and  that  these  small  cliildren  who  are  unusually  bright 
are  in  danger  of  mental  deca}'  and  an  early  death. 

Iii'.prL-ssioii  of  Teachers. — This  is,  however,  not  the 
general  impression  that  is  obtained  by  teachers  from  an 
examination  of  such  cases.  Teachers  generall)  get  the 
impression  that  there  is  a  reciprocal  relation  between 
bodily  growth  and  ability  to  do  mental  work.  When  a 
large  proportion  of  energy  that  is  available  in  the  body  is 
employed  in  doing  ])hysical  work  and  in  Iniilding  up 
tissues  there  is  a  correspondingly  smaller  proportion  re- 
maininof  for  doincr  mental  work.  This  conclusion,  derived 
from  casual  observation  of  a  few  cases  of  precocious 
children,  is  directly  contradictory  to  that  derived  from  a 
careful  and  accurate  examination  of  many  thousand  chil- 
dren of  sll  kinds.  It  would  seem  that  the  conclusion 
derived  from  an  examination  of  the  larger  number  of 
children  is  more  likely  to  be  correct.  How,  then,  shall 
we  explain  these  cas'es  of  precocious  cliildren? 

The  Small  Brv^ht  Child  Well  Adjusted  to  his  Work.— 
In  the  first  place  it  may  be  observed  that  the  cases  of 
small  children  who  are  bright  are  likely  to  receive  undue 
attention,  merely  from  the  fact  that  they  are  exceptional. 
The  brightness  of  the  smallest  child  in  the  room  is  likely 
to  attract  more  attention  than  is  the  brightness  of  the 
ordinary  child,  or  the  average  child  in  the  room.  He  is 
likely  to  receive   more   credit   for  being  bright  than  is 


356  I'RlNCIl'LliS    UF    TliACllING 

properly  due  to  him.     In  the  second  place,  the   fact  is 
generally  overlooked  that  the   small,   bright,   precocious 
child   seldom   maintains   his  superiority  up   to  the  years 
of  maturity,  and  seldom  develops  into  a  genius,     lie  is, 
when  he  becomes  mature,  very  likely  to  be  merely  an 
ordinary  individual,  ratlier  than  to  be  either  a  genius  or 
to  be  stupid.     Taking  this  fact  into  consideration,  we  may 
find  an  easy  explanation  of  the  precocious  child  in  school. 
Grozvth  Necessitates  Readjustment. — The   failure  of 
his  body  to  grow  is  paralleled  by  the  corresponding  failure 
of  his  mind  to  change.     Change  always  implies  a  demand 
for  readjustment,  both  ])hysical  and  mental.     The  grow- 
ing bodv  or  the  growing  mind  is  always  out  of  adjust- 
ment  with   its   surroundings   from,  the   very   fact   of   its 
^rowine,  and  there  is  always  implied  the  necessity  for  a 
readjustment   to   the   conditions    surrounding   him.     The 
small  cliild.  whose  growth  has  not  been  so  rapid  as  that 
of  other  children,  is  not  so  far  removed  from  adjustment 
to  the  conditions  that  he  meets  in  school  at  the  time  of 
his  slow  growth,  as  are  the  other  children  whose  growth 
has  been   more   rapid.     He   is  nut   so  constantly   exper- 
iencing new  impulses  and  encountering  new  conditions. 
He  cannot  have  the  same  distractions  that  more  rapidly 
growing  children  have :  consequently  his  school  work  is 
likely  to  be  done  better  than  that  of  the  rai^idly  growing 
children  whose  school  work  suffers  as  a  result  of  these 
distracting    circumstances.     This    explanation    seems    to 
satisfy  all  the  conditions   involved  in  the  problem,  and 
leaves  the  way  open  for  us  to  accept  the  conclusion  that 


Till".  (;k<)W1ii  oi'  (  II  ii-iiki:n  357 

ill  s^cneral,  lt.-a\  iii!^'  mil  oi  cuii^idrraUoii  llir  bright  cliildrcii 
whose  <i^rt»\\lli  lia^  Inin  (lela\cd.  ihc  wcll-y^rown  child 
is  more  likeh-  to  he  up  U)  grade  in  his  school  work  than 
is  the  child  whose  growth  has  not  been  so  satisfactory. 

Same  Conditions  Favorable  to  both  Mental  and 
Physical  Grozeth. — Shall  we,  then,  draw  the  conclusion 
that  physical  growth  is  the  cause  of  mental  growth? 
Such  a  conclusion  w^ould  be  unwarranted  from  the  data 
considered.  It  is  probably  safe  to  say  that  the  same 
conditions  of  good  food,  fresh  air,  exercise,  heredity,  and 
ethical  atmosphere  that  are  favorable  to  physical  growth 
are  at  the  same  time  and  in  the  same  degree  favorable  to 
mental  growth.  The  case  of  the  John  Worthy  school 
boys,  who  are  all  criminals,  nearly  all  below  grade  in 
mental  work,  and  nearly  all  below  the  average  in  physical 
growth,  indicates  that  moral  growth  is  dependent  upon 
the  same  conditions  that  determine  physical  and  mental 
growth. 

Docs  Rapid  Mental  Growth  Parallel  Rapid  Physical 
Groivth. — One  other  question  is  of  interest  to  us.  Just  at 
the  time  of  most  rapid  growth,  is  the  child  capable  of 
doing  as  good  work  in  school  as  he  is  at  other  times,  or 
should  the  school  work  be  lightened  for  him,  and  he  be 
not  expected  to  do  so  much?  The  prevailing  opinion, 
sanctioned  by  the  writers  on  child  study,  is  that  the  child 
in  periods  of  most  rapid  growth  is  not  capable  of  making 
so  great  intellectual  progress,  or  studying  with  the  same 
degree  of  profit,  as  when  he  is  not  growing.  The  prin- 
ciple cannot  be  stated  absolutely,  and  tlierc  is  even  reason 


3SSi  I'kl  \(ll'l.i:S   OF    TRACHTNO 

for  l)clicvino-  thai  llio  menial  f^^rowtli  rcsultin.c"  from  the 
formation  oi  uvw  associations  amonq-  the  l)rain  relN  and 
brain  centers  parallels  the  rapid  physical  g-rowtli  in  height. 
The  erratic  character  of  the  work,  amounting  to  very  poor 
work  in  the  ordinary  school  subjects,  may  be  accounted 
for  by  the  growth  of  new  interests  that  are  excluding,  in 
large  part,  the  old.  If  we  take  into  account  the  new  in- 
terests that  are  forming,  we  ma\-  have  a  better  under- 
standing  of  the  kind  and  amount  of  mental  work  that  the 
pupil  is  capable  of  doing. 

What  Detenu i lies  the  Maximum  of  Groivth. — The 
child  will  reach  a  certain  maximum  of  height  and  weight. 
The  maximum  height  will  be  reached  in  the  early  twenties, 
or  sooner ;  but  the  maximum  weight  will  scarcely  be 
reached  by  the  early  forties.  There  is  no  doubt  that  good 
food,  good  air  and  good  sanitary  conditions  assist  growth, 
but  the  body  tends  to  reach  the  same  maximum  under  un- 
favorable conditions.  It  is  difificult  to  estimate  the  effect 
of  good  food  and  other  extraneous  influences ;  to  deter- 
mine how  much  of  the  growth  that  is  made  is  due  to  the 
hereditary  factor,  and  how  much  is  due  to  the  circum- 
stances in  which  the  growing  is  done.  It  seems,  how- 
ever, thai  the  hereditary  factor  is  more  important  in 
determining  the  maximum  growth  than  are  good  food, 
clothing  and  exercise.  These  latter  factors  are  suscep- 
tible to  great  variation  without  materially  affecting  the 
maximum  height  and  weight  that  may  be  reached.  It  is 
quite  possible  that  good  external  conditions  contribute 
more  to  the  hastening  of  the  growth  than  they  do  to  the 
ultimate  maximum. 


TIIK    (;K0\\I11    of    CIIILDKKN  359 

SvAoi'sis. 

1.  The  greatest  improvements  in  educaticjii  in  recent 
years  have  come  from  a  stu(l\-  of  children,  both  in  their 
physical  nature  and  their  mental  development.  It  is 
necessary  to  adapt  the  subject  matter  of  instruction  to 
the  necessities  of  the  child. 

2.  The  growtli  of  cliildren  is  not  uniform.  Four 
well  marked  periods  of  rapid  growth,  alternating-  with 
intervals  of  slower  growth  may  be  observed. 

3.  In  general,  the  well  grown  child  is  more  likely  to 
be  up  to  grade  in  his  school  subjects  and  in  his  mental 
development  than  is  the  child  whose  physical  growth  is 
less  satisfactory. 

4.  Mental  and  moral  development  are  in  all  prob- 
ability dependent  upon  the  same  circuiustances  that  con- 
dition physical  growth.  ( )f  these  circumstances,  perhaps, 
heredity  is  more  important  than  is  any  other  one  factor. 


CHAPTER  XXL 
Defective  Vision. 

Importance  of  Kiioiciiii;  Physical  Conditions. — Some 
of  the  greatest  improvements  in  teaching  that  have 
accrued  from  tlie  recent  child-study  movement  are  de- 
rived from  the  greater  emphasis  that  it  has  laid  upon 
the  ph3-sical  welfare  of  children.  Examination  of  the 
physical  organisms  of  the  children  has  led  to  the  dis- 
closure of  many  defects  that  interfere  seriously  with 
their  progress  in  school.  Many  cases  of  stupidity  ha^•e 
been  found  to  be  only  apparent,  and  to  have  their  ex- 
planation in  defects  of  the  senses  of  sight  and  hearing. 

Indications  of  Poor  EycsigJit. — \Mien  we  find  a  child 
who  is  an  exceedingly  poor  speller,  or  who  miscalls 
words  frequently  in  his  reading,  or  who  fails  to  un- 
derstand many  things  in  his  lessons,  it  is  well  to  make 
an  examination  of  his  eyesight.  Some  child-psychol- 
ogists believe  that  e\'ery  case  of  extremel}^  poor  spell- 
ing is  associated  with  defective  eyesight,  even  if  not 
caused  directly  by  it.  While  it  is  perhaps  too  much 
to  admit  that  this  is  so  generally  true,  wc  may  still 
recognize  that  man}'  cases  of  i)oor  spelling  mav  be 
thus  accounted  for.  At  any  rale,  the  child  who  has 
defective  eyesight  is  placed  at  a  great  disachantage  in 

360 


i)i:i-KCTi\i-:  VISION-  301 

school  work,  and  unless  the  teacher  is  aware  of  tin- 
defect  in  the  child's  vision,  much  injustice  is  likely 
to  be  done.  Une  great  difficulty  is  that  the  child 
himself  is  not  always  aware  that  his  eyesight  is  de- 
fective. A\'e  do  not  ourselves  recognize  the  fact  that 
we  have  a  blind  spot  in  each  eye. 

Illustrations. — The  following  circumstance  came  with- 
in the  writer's  observation.  A  woman,  grown  up. 
married,  was  looking  through  a  small  spyglass,  prob- 
ably for  the  first  time  in  her  life.  In  trying  to  see 
through  the  glass  with  one  eye  closed,  she  became 
aware  that  she  was  blind  in  one  eye.  It  was  the  first 
intimation  of  the  fact  that  she  had  ever  had.  She  did 
not  know  when  the  eye  had  become  blind,  and  did  not 
know  but  that  it  might  have  been  blind  from  her  early 
childhood.  Another  woman  who  is  now  a  teacher  in 
a  high  school  testifies  that  when  she  was  ten  vears  old, 
her  uncle,  ^•isiting  the  house  where  she  was  living,  re- 
marked that  she  needed  glasses  and  insisted  upon  get- 
ting her  a  pair.  That  evening,  for  the  first  time  in  her 
I'fe,  she  saw  the  stars.  She  had  heard  about  the  stars, 
but  she  did  not  kncnv  that  they  were  things  that  could 
really  be  seen.  It  was  a  new  world  that  her  spectacles 
opened  up  to  her.  These  are  extreme  cases,  but  it  is 
in  extreme  cases,  wliidi  are  not  in  themsel\-es  rare, 
that  the  greatest  injustice  may  be  done,  and  the  great- 
est assistance  given  1)\-  the  teacher. 

iriioiii  to  E.vaiiniic.~~l[  is  n(_>t  necessary  to  examine 
everv  child  in  the  room  in  order  to  disco\er  those  that 


362  rRixcii'Li:s  of  tkaciiixg 

have  detective  vision,  roor  spelling  and  pc^or  reading 
have  already  been  suggested  as  possible  indications  of 
defective  eyesight.  Redness  of  the  eyes,  a  squinting 
appearance,  headaches,  are  all  symptoms,  and  when 
any  of  these  indications  appear,  the  teacher  should 
make  tests  of  seeing.  Examination  shows  that  twenty- 
five  per  cent  of  all  children  in  school  have  vision  that 
is  more  or  less  defective.  However,  not  more  than 
about  ten  per  cent  have  vision  so  defective  that  it  is 
a  serious  disadvantage  to  them.  It  is  no  doubt  true 
that  the  entire  number  of  children  in  a  community  af- 
fected with  defective  vision  is  greater  than  these 
figures  show%  because  the  most  serious  cases  do  not 
enter  school. 

Percentage  of  Defective  Eyes. — The  number  is  not 
constant  in  the  grades.  The  prevailing  opinion  is  that 
the  number  of  children  with  defective  eyesight  is  least 
in  the  first  grade  and  gradually  increases  in  the  higher 
grades.  P^rom  this  it  is  argued  that  school  work  is  det- 
rimental to  eyesight.  Investigations  seem  to  show  that 
a  considerable  percentage  of  children  in  the  first  grade 
have  defective  eyesight,  and  that  the  percentage  stead- 
ily increases  until  the  fourth  grade,  when  it  begins  to 
decrease.  The  decrease  is  constant  until  the  sixth 
grade  is  reached,  where  the  lowest  percentage  of  de- 
fective eyes  is  fcjund.  This  decrease  may  be  associated 
with  the  oncoming  of  the  period  of  rapid  growth  and 
adolescent  changes,  which  seems  to  have  a  tendency  to 
improve    the    cA'csighl    of    man}-    children.      After    the 


Dr:!-i:c'ii\i':  msiok 


si.xlli  t;ra<k'.  ilio  ])erccnlai^e  of  (k"fecti\'c  eyes  increases 
sliiwly  and  ^radnally  lliroiij^lKuil  llie  other  i^ratlcs.  A 
connt  of  ^Indents  in  normal  school  classes  shows  nsu- 
all\-  from  twenty-five  to  thirty-three  i)er  cent  of  the 
students  wearing  glasses,  and  from  five  to  ten  per 
cent  seri(^nslv   inconvenienced   without  them. 


Fio.  73. — Diagram  showing  the  point  at  which  the  rays  of  light  are  brought 
to  a  focus  in  different  eyes. 

Myopia. — The  most  common  kind  of  defective  vision 
in  children  is  myopia,  or  near-sightedness.  In  this 
case,  the  child  must  hold  his  book  or  other  object 
which  he  wishes  to  see  clearly  at  a  distance  less  than 
the  normal  from  his  eye.  Idle  normal  eye  can  see 
things  Ijest  at  a  distance  of  about  ten  inches  from  the 
eye.  The  myopic  eye  must  ha\e  it  brought  nearer 
than  ten  inches  in  order  to  sec  it  most  clearly.  The 
explanation  of  this  defect  is  easy.  The  cornea  of  the 
myopic  eye  is  too  convex,  and  rays  that  come  from  an 
object  at  a  normal  distance  are  brought  together  at  a 
point  in  front  of  the  retina,  instead  of  exactly  at  it. 
When  an  object  is  held  nearer  to  the  eye  than  the 
normal  distance,  the  rays  from  a  ]ioint  on  the  object  are 
more  diverging  than  they  would  be  if  they  came  from 


.V)4  I'KIXCII'I.ES   or    TRACKING 

the  iKuiiial  (li^laiiri- :  in  tlii>  way  ilir  inure  convex 
conica  hriiii^s  the  more  (li\er£;inii'  rays  lo  a  focus  at  the 
proper  distance  behind  it.  In  (.rder  to  compensate  for 
this  too  great  convexity  of  the  cornea,  the  person 
needs  to  wear  concave  t^lasses,  which  are  thicker  on  the 
edees  than  thev  are  in  tiie  middle. 

Hypcrmctropia. — Another  defect  of  vision  is  far- 
sightedness, or  hypermetropia.  This  defect  is  the  op- 
posite condition  from  that  of  myopia.  In  far-sighted- 
ness the  object  that  is  to  be  seen  must  be  held  farther 
from  the  eye  than  is  the  case  with  normal  vision. 
The  cornea  is  not  convex  enough  to  bring  the  rays 
of  light  to  a  focus  on  the  retina  when  the  point  is 
at  the  distance  at  which  the  normal  eye  sees  best  and 
the  rays,  in  order  to  be  brought  to  a  focus  on  the 
retina,  must  be  less  diverging  than  when  they  come 
from  an  object  at  the  normal  distance.  This  result  is 
accomplished  by  holding  the  object  at  a  distance  from 
the  eye  greater  than  the  normal.  The  eyes  of  a  person 
older  than  about  forty  are  likely  to  become  less  convex 
than  they  were  before,  hence  far-sightedness  is  com- 
mon in  older  persons.  Some  children  are  far-sighted. 
Sometimes,  when  a  person  has  been  near-sighted  as  a 
child,  the  far-sightedness  resulting  from  age  will  com- 
pensate for  the  near-sighted  condition,  and  the  person 
will  become  able  to  see  better  as  he  growls  older.  The 
person  who  is  far-sighted  needs  to  wear  convex  glasses, 
which  are  thicker  in  the  middle  than  they  are  at  the 
edecs. 


.Isfii^uiafisiii. — Still  another  defect  is  astigmatism. 
This  arises  from  an  incciualit}'  in  the  conxexity  of  the 
cornea.  The  eyeball  ought  to  l)e  a  section  of  a  sphere, 
and  the  surface  ought  to  be  truly  spherical.  lUu  some- 
times the  convexity  is  greater  in  one  direction  than  it 
is  in  another,  so  that  all  the  rays  of  light  that  enter 
the  eye  from  a  single  point  are  not  brought  to  a  focus 
at  the  same  place,  and  a  blurred  image  is  the  result. 
The  eyes  of  nearly  every  person  are  somewhat  astig- 
matic. The  appearance  of  rays  of  light  radiating  from 
a  star,  is  eA'idence  of  astigmatism.  However,  the  de- 
fect is  not  usually  great  enough  to  cause  serious 
trouble.  A  person  whose  eyes  are  astigmatic  needs 
glasses  that  are  shaped  especially  to  compensate  for 
the  inef|uality  of  curvature  in  his  eyes. 

SiicUcn's  Test  Cards. — The  method  of  testing  the 
e\'esight  of  children  is  easy  and  within  the  reach  of 
every  teacher.  The  usual  test  for  myopia  is  Snellen's 
test  cards.  These  cards  are  printed  in  black  letters  on 
a  white  background,  or  in  white  letters  on  a  black  back- 
ground. The  letter  at  the  top  is  a  large  E  which  is 
expected  to  be  read  by  the  normal  eye  at  the  distance 
of  200  feet.  Other  letters  of  dififerent  sizes,  one  size  for 
each  line,  and  which  are  expected  to  be  read  by  the 
normal  eye  at  distances  respectively  of  100,  70,  50,  40, 
30,  20.  12  and  10  feet  are  found  on  the  card. 

Method  of  Making  the  Test. — The  person  whose 
vision  is  to  be  tested  is  seated  at  a  distance  of  twenty 
feet    from    the    carrl    which    is    hiini'"   in    a    </oofl    litrlTt. 


366  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

Only  one  eye  is  tested  at  a  time,  for  there  is  frequently 
o-reat  variation  in  the  vision  of  the  two  eyes.  The 
hand,  or  some  other  opaque  object  is  held  before  the 
eye  which  is  not  being  tested,  and  the  type  is  read 
with  the  other  eye.  Beginning  with  the  larger  sizes 
of  type,  the  person  reads  the  several  rows  of  letters 
until  he  comes  to  one  that  he  cannot  read.  If  he  is 
able  to  read  the  row  of  letters  that  is  expected  to  be 
read  at  a  distance  of  twenty  feet,  then  his  vision  is 
lujusMto m AIMER coE nmuin 71  sT>i ii MCAw  normal,    ii,  nowever,  ne  laus 

"]"'        ^^^^^         "2       ^^  ^^^^1  ^1^^  twenty  feet  row, 

^^^^H  and  is  able  to  read  the  thirty 

^^    J  feet  row,  his  visual  acuity  is 

M^MM  said   to  be   20/30.     If  he   is 

-_^     ^g^         „       able  to  read  no  letters  smaller 

J^%    \^  than  the   fifty   feet  row  at  a 

distance  of  20  feet,  his  visual 
"  IT     L     D  acuity  is  20/50 

„  m    TJ    Ti    '°  '^^^^  f^''  ^yp(^'*"^^'^^^^opia. — 

**■     "^     '^    *■  The  test  with  Snellen's  cards 

"   Ij   Z   F   B   D    "       is    not    very    satisfactory    for 
.    c  T  L  C  r  O     "       far-sightedness.     If  a  person 

can  read  the  fifteen  feet  row 

EOPZrHDA 

at  a  distance  of  20  feet,  we 

.,      RVTZrHDBKOPM  ■•  .  -I,! 

may  say  that  he  is  far-sighted, 

Test  "for  'Myopi'a.     This      but  a  person  may  be  far-sight- 
cut  is  reduced  to  1/10  size,      ^j  ^5-,^]  still  be  unable  to  read 

It  in  consequence  of  the  letters  being  too  small  to  make  a 
sufficicnllv   large   visual   angle   to  permit   them   to   be 


i)i-:i-KCTi\ I".  \isi().\  M')7 

read.      'l"he   definition   may   be   perfect    at     the    greater 
distance,  but  the  visual  angle  too  small. 

ProVs  .Islii/iiiatic  Letters. — Prav's  astigmatic  letters 
are  used  as  a  test  for  astigmatism.  The  letters  are 
large  and  composed  of  alternate  black  and  white  lines, 
the  lines  in  any  one  letter  running  parallel  to  each 
other.  The  letters  are  of  the  same  size  and  twelve  in 
number.  The  lines  that  constitute  one  letter  run 
horizontally  and  those  which  constitute  another  make 
an  angle  of  fifteen  degrees  with  the  horizon.  The  other 
letters  are  composed  of  lines  which  vary  from  these 
positions  by  increasing  differences  of  fifteen  degrees, 
making  angles  with  the  horizon,  of  30,  45,  60,  75  and 
90  degrees  respectively.  Then  varying  in  the  other 
direction  back  to  the  original  horizontal  position.  Each 
letter  has  the  same  proportion  of  its  surface  composed 
of  black  lines  that  the  other  letters  do,  so  that  to  a 
normal  eye,  one  letter  will  appear  just  as  black  as  any 
other.  If  some  of  the  letters  look  darker  than  do  the 
others,  it  is  evidence  of  an  astigmatic  condition,  and 
the  direction  of  the  lines  in  the  letters  which  look 
darker  will  indicate  tlie  direction  of  the  greatest  curva- 
ture of  the  cornea. 

Treatment  of  Defective  Vision. — These  are  the  de- 
fects in  vision  which  are  the  most  common  and  most 
easily  escape  notice.  Diseases  of  the  eye  which  are 
characterized  by  inflamed  lids  and  ulcerated  cornea  are 
known  in  other  ways.  Practically  all  cases  of  myopia, 
hypermetropia    and    astigmatism    may   be    improved   by 


0"  PC  AT  5  A  sir  &MH  Tit    LETT£«tJ 


368  rRi.\cii'Li:s  oi-  Ti:Aciiixr. 

the  use  of  glasses  properly  lUled.  hence  it  is  of  im- 
portance for  the  progress  of  the  children  th;it  the 
teacher  or  other  person  shall  make  such  examination 
of  the  eyes  as  will  prevent  injustice  from  being  done, 
and  enable  children  to  do  their  best  work  in  school. 
While  the  teacher  should  be  able  to  test  the  eyes  to 

discox'cr  defects,  the 
prescril)ing  of  glasses, 
or  other  means  of  im- 
provement of  eyesight 
must  be  left  to  the 
ll"j|l'        ll>''h       '"/"Jl         kilkd  oculist 

Defective    I  ision. —  The 
^  charge      is      frequently 

made  that  school  work 
is    detrimental    to    eye- 
sight,   and    manv    per- 
/^^'^       ^$'^*i^       ^^  ^^        ""'^"^  ^^^  inclined  to  at- 
^  jy       '^.^^  ^^  tribute  much  of  the  de- 

™    ,    ,        A   .•        ,•   „       r>  lective  eyesight  in  chil- 

Test     for    Astigmatism.       Kc-  -^       » 

(luccd  to  1/10  size.  drcn    to    school    work. 

If  this  were  pro\  (.d  lo  be  true,  it  would  be  a 
serious  charge  against  the  schools.  A  previous  state- 
ment has  shown  the  result  of  investigation  which  in- 
dicates that  the  sixth  grade  manifests  a  smaller  per- 
centage of  children  with  defective  vision  than  do  other 
grades,  and  this  does  not  corrobrate  the  charge.  It  is 
extrcmel\-    probal)le    that    better   hygienic   conditions,    so 


O  B 

^N^j    Ni|\!    >\V 


DEFECTIVK    VISION'  360 

far  as  the  use  of  ilic  c}'cs  is  coiicenu-d.  prevail  in 
school  than  in  the  liomc.  There  is  scarcely  a  school- 
room in  which  chihlren  are  compcllcfl  to  read  while 
facino-  the  lis^hl  and  scarcely  a  teacher  wonld  ]iermil 
them  to  do  so.  At  home,  children  are  nnder  little  re- 
straint in  this  matter  and  man}'  of  them  certainly  read 
imder  the  worst  possible  conditions  of  poor  light,  and 
Avhile  facing  the  source  of  illumination. 

When  the  eyes  of  a  child  are  turned  toward  the 
light,  the  pupillar}-  reflex  tends  to  close  up  the  pupil 
by  the  contraction  of  the  circular  muscles  in  the  iris 
and  to  decrease  the  amount  of  light  which  is  admitted. 
When  the  page  of  the  book  which  the  pupil  is  reading 
is  turned  away  from  the  light,  little  light  falls  upon 
it  and  it  is  poorly  illuminated.  When  the  child  is 
trying  to  read  such  an  unilluminated  page,  the  pupil 
lary  reflex  tends  to  open  the  pupil  by  the  contraction 
of  the  radial  muscles  of  the  iris.  When  the  pupil  is 
trying  to  read  while  facing  the  light,  both  conditions 
prevail.  The  page  of  the  book  is  poorly  illuminated 
and  the  light  enters  the  eye  directly.  The  consequence 
is  that  the  radial  muscles  try  to  enlarge  the  pupil  of 
the  eye  at  the  same  time  that  the  circular  muscles  are 
trying  to  close  it  and  the  two  sets  of  muscles  are 
acting  at  the  same  time  in  opposition  to  each  other. 
Such  a  condition  results  in  muscle  strain  in  the  pupil- 
lary muscles  and  there  is  likely  to  result  an  inflamed 
condition  of  the  iris  and  adjacent  tissues  from  such 
excessive  strain. 


370  I'RIXCII'LKS   OF    TKACIIING 

Reading  and  Defective  Vision.— \t  may  be  asserted 
that  reading  itself  is  detrimental  to  eyesight.  This 
is  the  one  thing  which  is  characteristic  of  school  work, 
and  even  the  reading  that  is  done  outside  of  school  in 
preparation  of  lessons  may  be  charged  up  to  its  ac- 
count. If  the  print  in  the  books  that  are  read  is  not 
of  the  proper  kind,  injury  may  easily  result.  How- 
ever, nearly  all  school  books  are  good  examples  of 
book-making.  The  print  should  not  be  smaller  than 
small  pica,  which  has  letters  six-one  hundredths  of  an 
inch  high,  and  the  letters  should  be  spaced  at  least 
three  and  a  half  hundredths  apart.  With  type  not 
smaller  than  this  and  properly  printed,  it  is  doubtful 
if  the  amount  of  reading  that  school  work  demands 
will  produce  any  injury  to  the  eyes. 

Proper  Auwunt  of  Light. — The  manner  in  which  the 
light  is  admitted  to  the  room  will  have  an  effect  upon 
the  eyesight  of  children.  The  window  surface  must  be 
great  enough  to  furnish  a  sufficient  amount  of  light  on 
a  cloudy  da\-,  and  on  a  bright  day  some  of  the  light 
must  be  s!uit  out  by  window  shades.  The  window 
surface  ought  to  be  one-fourth  or  one-fifth  as  great  as 
the  floor  space,  although  this  estimate  will  be  modi- 
tied  bv  the  proximity  of  other  houses,  or  trees  that 
may  shade  the  windows.  The  shape  of  the  room  will 
also  modify  it  somewliat,  since  if  the  windows  are  all 
on  the  short  side  of  the  room,  the  light  will  not  be  so 
well  distributed  as  if  they  are  on  the  long  side. 

Direction  of  Light. — The  light  should  come  from  the 


DEFECTIVE    VISION  371 

rear  and  from  the  left.  The  only  reason  for  having 
it  come  from  the  left  rather  than  from  the  right  is 
that  in  writing  we  move  from  the  left  hand  side  of  the 
page  toward  the  right.  Nearly  all  persons  use  the 
right  hand  in  writing.  If  the  light  should  c(;mc  from 
the  right,  the  portion  of  the  word  which  has  already 
been  written,  and  which  is  the  place  at  which  we  must 
look  in  guiding  our  hand  to  complete  the  word  and  to 
make  the  next  stroke,  will  1)c  in  the  shadow.  If  the 
light  comes  from  the  left,  no  such  shadow  is  thrown 
upon  the  part  of  the  word  that  is  already  written. 

For  reading,  there  is  no  difference  whether  the  light 
comes  from  the  left  or  from  the  right.  It  is  evident 
from  what  has  been  said  above  that  no  windows  should 
be  in  the  side  of  the  room  in  front  of  the  children.  If 
all  the  light  should  come  from  the  rear,  the  shadow  of 
the  children's  heads  and  shoulders  will  fall  upon  a 
book  that  is  held  in  front,  so  this  position  for  the 
windows  is  not  to  be  recommended.  A  skylight  in  a 
room  furnishes  a  \"ery  satisfactory  source  n\  illumina- 
tion. The  color  of  tlie  walls  will  exercise  some  in- 
fluence upon  the  illumination.  If  the  walls  are  white, 
an  otherwise  dark  room  will  be  lighter,  while  a  large 
amount  of  blackboard  surface  will  produce  an  opposite 
effect. 

Wi)idazv  Shades. — Some  means  of  excluding  the  ex- 
cess of  light  on  a  bright  day  are  necessary.  For  this 
purpose  window  shades  arc  employed,  and  these  a^c 
various   in   their  kinds.      A   Hsrht   vellow   or   buff   shade 


2i/l  rKIXCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

that  will  permit  some  light  to  pass  through  it  is  usually 
more  nearly  satisfactory  than  one  that  is  opaque.  Red 
shades  are  believed  to  be  injurious  to  the  eyes.  When 
part  of  the  light  needs  to  be  shut  out,  it  is  better  to 
shut  it  out  from  the  bottom  than  from  the  top.  Hence 
it  is  believed  to  be  more  desirable  for  the  window 
shades  to  be  so  hung  as  to  be  pulled  up  from  the 
bottom  than  to  be  drawn  down  from  the  top.  Devices 
are  in  use  that  permit  the  adjustment  of  the  window 
shade  to  hang  from  any  point  desired.  Inside  wooden 
shutters,  or  slatted  blinds  are  more  nearly  permanent, 
less  likely  to  be  out  of  repair,  and  are  very  satisfactory 
as  a  means  lor  regulating  the  light.  Every  schoolroom 
should  be  supplied  with  some  means  of  artificial  illumi- 
nation so  that  on  the  not  very  rare  occasions  of  un- 
usual darkness  accompanying  a  rainstorm,  the  school 
work  may  not  be  interrupted. 

Color  Blindness. — One  other  form  of  defective  vision 
may  be  noticed.  There  are  cases  of  color  blindness, 
which  prevents  a  person  so  alYected  from  recognizing 
colors,  and  everything  appears  to  him  as  black  or  white 
or  various  shades  of  gray.  The  general  appearance  of 
things  is  identical  with  that  shown  in  a  photograph. 
About  four  men  in  a  hundred  are  color  blind,  and  a 
very  few  women,  perhaps  not  more  than  one  in  a 
thousand.  The  test  for  color  blindness  cannot  be 
made  by  asking  a  person  to  name  the  colors  shown  to 
him,  but  by  asking  him  to  match  the  color  of  var- 
ious   articles,     such    as     colored     ribbons,    or    bits    of 


DEFF.CTIVR   VISION'  373 

worsted.  Tf  lie  inaiclic>  ilic  colors  correctly,  lie  is  not 
color  blind,  but  if  be  puts  into  the  same  group  reds 
and  greens  or  \arious  shades  of  blue,  it  is  evidence 
of  color  l)lindness. 

Synopsis. 

1.  Defective  vision  is  a  cause  of  poor  school  work 
in  some  children.  In  order  to  prevent  injustice  to  the 
child,  and  to  secure  the  best  work,  the  teacher  should 
be  prepared  to  make  tests  of  vision. 

2.     Myopia,  hypermetropia  and  astigmatism  are  the 
principal  defects  in  the  vision  of  school  children. 

3.  Snellen's  test  cards  are  employed  for  making  the 
test  for  myopia,  and  with  less  accuracy,  for  hyperme- 
tropia. Pray's  astigmatic  letters  constitute  a  conven- 
ient test  for  astigmatism. 

4.  School  work  may  be  done  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  injure  the  eyesight.  i)ut  it  is  very  probable  that  in 
to  injure  the  eyesight,  but  it  is  very  probable  that  in 
school  than  in  the  homes  of  the  children. 


CHAPTER  XXII. 
Defective  Hearing. 

Niimher  of  Children  With  Defective  Hearing. — All 
that  has  been  said  in  the  previous  chapter  about  de- 
fective vision  may  be  repeated  with  emphasis  about 
defective  hearing.  We  find  that  many  children  suc- 
ceed poorly  in  their  school  work  in  consequence  of  de- 
fective hearing,  and  it  is  important,  both  to  the  teacher 
and  to  the  children,  that  the  teacher  shall  know 
whether  a  particular  child  can  hear  well  or  not.  Alany 
cases  of  serious  injustice  have  occurred  from  the  fact 
cent  of  children  have  hearing  that  is  more  or  less  de- 
fective hearing.  We  know  that  about  twenty-five  per 
cent  of  children  have  hearing  that  is  more  or  less  de- 
fective in  one  or  both  ears.  This  nund^er  is  least  in 
the  lowest  grades,  and  rises  gradually  until  in  the 
eighth  grade,  perhaps,  one-third  are  afifected.  How- 
ever, not  more  than  ten  per  cent  are  likely  to  have 
hearing  so  defective  as  to  interfere  materially  with  the 
success  of  their  school  work. 

Necessity  for  Prompt  Treatment. — It  is  important 
to  the  child,  also,  that  the  state  of  his  hearing  shall 
be  recognized  by  some  one  capable  of  giving  compe- 
tent advice,  for  in  nearly  all  such  cases  prompt  and 
skillful   attention   ma>'   remedy   the   defect.     Promptness 

374 


DEFECTIVE    nEAKIXU  375 

is  an  important  matter  in  all  cases  of  defective  hearing. 
Some  cases  are  recorded  of  really  pitiful  examples  of 
injustice  done  in  consequence  of  the  teacher's  ignor- 
ance of  the  child's  state  of  hearing.  In  the  Child  Study 
]\Ionthly,  Volume  I,  is  recorded  the  case  of  a  boy, 
Archie,  who  was  kept  in  the  first  grade  for  five  suc- 
cessive years  in  consequence  of  his  inability  to  ac- 
complish the  work  of  the  grade.  Younger  children 
from  the  same  family  had  passed  into  the  other  grades, 
but  Archie  was  recognized  as  a  dunce.  One  day  the 
principal  of  the  school  in  a  store  at  holiday  time  asked 
Archie  what  he  wanted  for  Christmas.  Archie  pointed 
to  a  dumb  watch.  Then  the  teacher  inquired  why  not 
have  one  like  his,  that  would  tick.  Attempts  to  show 
the  difference  led  to  the  surprising  discovery  that 
Archie  could  not  hear  the  watch  tick  at  all.  The 
principal  took  him  immediately  to  a  physician  who  re- 
moved the  adenoid  growths  which  caused  the  deafness, 
and  xA.rchie  returned  to  school.  Within  six  weeks 
Archie  had  become  the  best  pupil  in  the  room,  and 
within  a  year  had  recovered  nearly  all  the  ground  that 
had  been  lost  in  his  years  of  deafness. 

This  is  an  extreme  case,  but  we  are  likely  to  find 
such  cases  at  any  time.  The  pitiful  part  of  the  mat- 
ter is  that  the  child  himself  is  not  likel\  to  know  that 
he  is  deaf,  but  must  accept  the  alternative  that  he  is 
stupid.  It  is  only  when  some  one  investigates  and 
informs  him  of  the  fact  that  he  becomes  aware  of  his 
deafness. 


376  I'RIXCIPLES   OF   TEAClIliXG 

Apparent  Stupidity  Due  to  Deafness. — Defective 
hearing  induces  the  appearance  of  sLupidit}'.  W  hen 
we  ha\  e  a  \ery  stupid  child  in  schouh  the  tirst  thnig  to 
(.\o  is  to  examine  his  hearing.  Sometimes  we  may  be  led 
to  suspect  defective  hearing  by  the  facial  expression 
of  stupidity,  or  Ijy  the  open  mouth  in  breathing.  In- 
attention, disobedience,  failure  to  comply  with  the  re- 
quests of  the  teach.er,  sometimes  all  of  these  arise  from 
an  inability  to  hear,  and  the  teacher  must  be  alert  to 
its  signs.  E\en  wdien  a  child  can  hear  well  enough  to 
understand  what  is  said  in  the  schoolroom,  there  is 
such  a  strain  upon  the  attention,  caused  by  the  defect, 
that  fatigue  soon  intervenes,  and  the  child  fails  to  ac- 
complish as  much  as  he  might. 

Causes  of  Defeetiz'e  Heariui;;. — Defective  hearing 
may  be  caused  l)v  \arious  c»niditions.  Some  of  the 
most  serious  cases  arise  as  the  after  effect  of  disease. 
Probably  a  larger  numl)er  of  children  become  deaf 
from  scarlet  fever  than  from  any  other  cause.  Another 
cause  of  defective  hearing  is  catarrh,  which  acting 
upon  the  nuicmis  membrane  of  the  throat  and  nasal 
passages,  is  likely  to  close  up  the  Eustachian  tube, 
and  to  produce  inflammation  of  the  organs  of  the  mid- 
dle ear  itself.  The  removal  of  the  inflammatory  con- 
dition as  soon  as  possible  is  the  only  remedy,  and 
l)rom])t  measures  are  necessary  1<)  jircvent  the  condi- 
lifiu  Irom  becoming  elir(>nie.  .'~^ometimes  adenoid 
growtlis,  which  are  exerescencis  ujjou  the  posterior 
portions  of  the  nasal  organs.  ])ress  upon  the  Eustachian 


DEFECTIVE    IIEARIXG 


Z77 


tubes  and  prcxriu  llic  iroc  egress  and  ingress  of  the 
air.  This  pruthiccs  deafness,  ami  Ihe  remedy  is  the 
removal  of  the  adenoid  ti.^Mie.  Sometimes  enlarged 
tonsils  press  upon  the  Eustachian  tubes,  and  the  re- 
mii\al  of  the  tonsils  is  the  usual  treatiuent.  The  sep- 
tum of  the  nose  may  be  so  crooked  as  to  prevent  the 


ADENOIDS 
/ 


NASAL  ^;.;.  ,, 

Cavity 


RIGHT  TONSIL 


Where  the  Adenoids  T^orm. 
Showing  Iiow  adenoids  or  enlarged  tonsils  obstruct  normal 
breathing.  Note  the  large  nasal  cavit3^  the  lining  of  which 
covers  an  area  of  over  twenty  square  inches,  and  serves  to 
warm,  moisten  and  purify  the  air  ])efore  it  passes  on  into  the 
throat.  Tliis  cut  shows  a  large  mass  of  adenoids  hanging 
from  the  roof  of  the  naso-pharyngeal  cavitj-  (the  expanded 
upper  end  of  the  throat.) 

easy  introduction  of  the  air  into  the  middle  ear.  Tn 
such  cases  the  septum  needs  to  be  straightened.  In 
nearly  all  cases  of  partial  deafness,  the  trou1)le  is  with 


378  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

the   middle   ear,   and   arises   from    a   stoppage   of  the 
Eustachian  tube. 

The  Watch  7r^/.— Fortunately,  the  method  of  test- 
ing the  hearing  is  an  easy  one.  In  an  ordinary  room, 
as  still  as  convenient,  the  teacher  ascertains  how  far 
the  pupil  can  hear  a  watch  tick.  Wide  variations  in  the 
hearing  of  children  will  be  discovered,  and  it  will  be 
necessary  for  the  teacher  first  to  establish  a  norm  for 
the  watch  he  is  using.  The  average  distance  at 
which  children  can  count  the  ticks,  may  be  adopted  as 
the  norm  for  the  particular  watch  used.  Probably  the 
average  for  all  the  children  in  the  room  will  serve  well 
as  a  norm  for  the  watch.  Some  children  may  hear  the 
watch  tick  at  a  distance  of  ten  feet,  while  other  chil- 
dren whose  hearing  is  not  noticeably  defective  will  hear 
it  at  only  three  feet. 

Hozv  Employed. — Having  tested  the  watch,  the 
teacher  proceeds  to  test  the  child  by  means  of  it.  The 
child  is  directed  to  close  his  eyes.  This  is  necessary 
in  order  that  he  shall  not  be  led  into  error  by  reporting 
the  watch  as  heard  when  its  presence  is  known  by 
some  other  means  than  its  ticking.  Sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  blindfold  a  child  before  we  can  place  re- 
liance upon  his  report  that  the  watch  is  heard.  The  ear 
that  is  not  being  tested  should  be  covered  l)y  the  hand, 
or  some  other  device  for  excluding  sound  from  il 
should  be  employed.  Each  ear  should  be  tested  sepa- 
rately, for  it  is  often  the  case  that  the  two  ears  arc 
not  of  equal  acuteness. 


DEFECTIVE    IIKAKIXC  379 

Prccoiitio)is  Observed. — Before  proceeding  to  make 
the  test  the  watch  should  be  wound,  for  only  by  this 
means  can  we  assure  ourselves  that  it  will  tick  with 
unif(>rni  loudness.  When  a  watch  is  newly  wound  it 
will  tick  more  loudly  than  when  it  is  nearly  run  down. 
It  is  not  the  loudness  that  is  necessary  so  much  as  it  is 
the  uniformity  of  loudness. 

Method  of  Making  the  Test. — \\'hen  a  child  is  seated 
in  a  chair  with  the  ear  to  be  tested  turned  toward  the 
teacher,  the  watch  is  held  at  such  a  distance  from  the 
child  that  it  is  improbable  he  can  hear  it.  The  teacher 
by  some  word,  as  "Xow."  indicates  the  time  that  the 
child  is  to  report  whether  the  watch  can  be  heard  or 
not.  The  child  may  respond  by  "Yes,"  or  "No."  Then, 
if  the  ticking:  is  not  heard  the  teacher  brings  the 
watch  nearer  until  it  is  distinctly  heard.  Then  the 
watch  is  carried  away  from  the  ear  until  it  can  no 
longer  be  heard,  the  child  reporting  at  frccjuent  inter- 
vals whether  it  is  heard  or  not.  These  tests  are  re- 
peated until  the  teacher  is  satisfied  of  the  correctness 
of  the  report,  and  the  distance  at  w'hich  the  watch  can 
just  be  heard  is  measured.  If  the  distance  is  as  great 
as  previous  tests  of  the  watch  have  shown  that  it  can 
be  heard  by  other  children,  tlie  child  does  not  have 
defective  hearing. 

Manipulation  of  the  JVafcJi. — Care  must  be  taken  in 
the  manipulation  of  the  watch.  The  child  must  not 
be  seated  near  a  wall,  for  the  wall  will  tend  to  reflect 
the   sound   and   so   increase   the    loudness    of   the   tick. 


3,S()  l'Kl\CIiT-F.S  OF   Ti'.Acnrxo 

'riic  walcli  ninsl  iiol  ln'  held  in  tlic  i);ilin  of  llie  liaml, 
but  sus])Lii(Ic(l  by  the  l)(>\v,  for  the  hand  will  furnish 
a  rcrtector  for  the  sound.  The  watch  should  sonic- 
times  be  removed  from  the  presence  of  the  pupil  and 
put  into  some  place  where  it  is  impossible  for  the 
child  to  hear  it  while  he  does  not  suspect  that  it  has 
disappeared.  Only  in  such  ways  and  with  such  pre- 
cautions can  the  teacher  be  certain  that  the  child  really 
hears  the  watch  and  not  merely  imagines  it.  An  illus- 
ion, or  hallucination  of  hearing-,  is  very  easily  induced 
in  these  tests. 

The  Whisper  Test. — Another  test  is  necessary  to 
corroborate  the  watch  test.  The  teacher  stands  about 
thirty  feet  from  the  pupil  and  whispers  words  with  as 
nearlv  uniform  deo-ree  of  loudness  as  possible.  The 
ini]ul  repeats  the  words  that  the  teacher  has  whispered 
as  nearly  as  he  understands  them.  If  the  words  are 
not  corrcctlv  repeated,  the  teacher  approaches  more 
closely  to  the  child  until  the  words  can  be  repeated 
correctly.  The  princii)al  source  of  error  in  this  test 
is  the  variation  in  loudness  of  the  whisper  that  the 
teacher  gives.  In  an  ()rdiiiar\'  room,  not  i^erfectly  still 
but  moderately  quiet,  a  person  \vhose  hearing  is  not 
defective  may  hear  a  whisper  at  a  distance  of  about 
twenty  feet.  V>y  means  of  these  tests  the  teaclicr  can 
determine  pretty  definitely  what  pupils  have  defective 
hearing  and  how  serious  the  defect  may  be. 


DEFECTIVE    HEARING  381 

SYxXOPSIS. 

1.  Defectixe  hearing'  is  c(|ually  prevalent  with  de- 
fect i\c  vision,  and  produces  as  disastrous  results  upon 
ihe  work  of  the  child. 

2.  Promptness  in  recogiiizinq-  defective  hearing  and 
advice  toward  its  proper  treatment  is  imperative  if  the 
defect  is  not  to  become  permanent. 

3.  The  watch  test  and  the  whisper  test  are  reliable 
and  convenient  for  a  teacher  to  use  in  testmg  for  de- 
fective hearing". 


CPIAPTER  XXIII. 

Fatigue,    LEFT-HAXDiiDXEss,     Xervousness,     Postuke 

AND  Disease. 

Tivo  Kinds  of  Fatigue. — It  is  necessary  for  us  to 
know  something  about  fatigue  in  school,  for  other- 
wise we  may  act  very  injudiciously  toward  children, 
and  produce  permanent  injury  to  them.  There  are 
two  kinds  of  fatigue,  muscular  and  nervous.  Muscular 
fatigue  arises  from  changes  in.  the  muscle  cells,  which 
are  brought  about  usually  by  excessive  activity.  Xerve 
fatigue  depends  upon  changes  occurring  in  nerve  cells 
and  may  be  brought  about  by  a  variety  of  causes.  Of 
the  two  kinds,  nerve  fatigue  is  much  more  common 
among  students,  although  it  •  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
one  form  from  the  other. 

Beneficial  Nature  of  Fatigue. — Fatigue  is  a  feeling 
characterized  by  a  painful  tone,  and  like  other  painful 
feelings  it  has  its  beneficent  efifect.  It  is  a  warning 
of  possible  danger,  and  an  intimation  that  injury  to 
the  organs  in  which  the  fatigue  originates  may  occur. 
if  the  excessive  activity  is  continued.  Its  origin  may 
be  explained   upon  the  principle  of  natural  selection. 

It  is  probable  that  in  nearly  all  cases,  nerve  fatigue 
occurs  in  the  brain  cells   and  not   in  the  fibres.     It  is 

382 


FATIGUE,    POSTURE,    AND   DISEASE  383 

scarcely  too  much  to  say  that  under  normal  conditions, 
it  is  impossible  to  fatigue  a  nerve  fiber.  The  muscle 
cells  which  lie  at  one  end  of  the  fiber,  and  the  gang- 
lion cells  which  lie  at  the  other  end  will  become  ex- 
hausted to  such  a  degree  as  to  prevent  the  generation 
of  a  nervous  impulse  for  the  fiber  to  transmit,  long 
before  the  fiber  becomes  fatigued.  Hence  the  fatigue 
of  the  fiber  becomes  practically  impossible. 

Fatigue  may  arise  from  either  one  or  both  of  two  con- 
ditions. When  a  brain  cell  or  muscle  fiber  is  acting,  there  is 
an  oxidation  of  tissue  to  liberate  energy.  If  the  oxida- 
tion of  tissue  goes  on  more  rapidly  than  its  restoration, 
fatigue  will  ensue.  If  the  oxidation  is  continued  long 
enough,  the  point  of  complete  exhaustion  will  be 
reached,  and  the  muscle  cell  or  the  nerve  tissue  will 
be  unable  to  liberate  any  more  energy. 

Fofigue  Due  to  Poisonous  Products. — But  there  is 
another  process  which  is  even  more  efi^ective  in  pro- 
ducing fatigue  than  the  excessive  oxidation  of  tissue. 
As  the  tissue  is  oxidized,  there  are  produced  toxic  sub- 
stances which  are  not  merely  waste  products,  but 
active  poisons.  They  not  only  clog  the  system,  pre- 
venting" its  fimctioning  with  a  normal  degree  of  read- 
iness, but  also  serve  to  poison  the  body,  preventing  its 
usual  degree  of  activity  in  every  way.  These  waste 
products  and  toxic  substances  must  be  eliminated  from 
the  system  and  carried  away  from  the  tissues.  If  the 
fatigue  poison  is  eliminated  from  the  body  as  rapidly 
as  it  is  produced,  fatigue  does  not  follow.     But  if  it  is 


384  PKI.\(ll'Li:S    OF    TF.ACllIXG 

produced  more  rapidly  than  it  can  1)0  eliniiiiated  by 
the  excretory  organs,  it  will  be  carried  by  the  blood  to 
all  parts  of  the  body,  affecting  all  its  tissues,  and 
fatigue  will  be  experienced  ('\er  the  whole  body.  F.veiy 
tissue  becomes  poisoned  and  its  activity  im])aired.  Il 
is  probable  tliat  the  effect  of  the  accumulation  of 
fatigue  poisons  rather  than  the  depletion  of  the  tissue 
cells,  is  the  source  of  the  feeling  of  fatigue. 

Conditions  of  Fatii^^uc. — From  the  above  considera- 
tions we  are  able  to  state  the  conditions  that  induce 
fatigue  and  the  means  of  preventing  it.  Taking  the 
first  cause  for  the  production  of  fatigue,  we  see  that 
fatigue  soon  follows  if  there  is  not  an  opportunity  for 
the  rebuilding  of  the  tissues.  If  the  body  is  poorly 
nouri>^hed  in  conseciuence  of  lack  of  food,  or  improper 
food,  or  from  some  failure  to  assimilate  the  food  that 
is  furnished,  fatigue  soon  follows  any  exertion.  A 
person. who  desires  to  do  good  work  must  eat  plenty 
of  food  of  the  right  kind. 

Jltal  Caf^ncitV:— Not  only  is  food  needed  to  keep  up 
the  sujij^lv  of  tissu.e  which  may  be  oxidized,  but  it  is 
equal! V  important  that  oxygen  be  furnished  for  the 
oxidizing  process.  Tf  the  air  that  the  person  breathes 
is  impure,  or  if  the  capacity  of  the  lungs  is  small, 
fatigue  is  likelv  to  follow  tipon  the  doing  of  a  smaller 
amount  of  work  than  if  the  air  is  pure  and  the  capacity 
of  the  lungs  greater.  If  the  number  of  respirations 
per  minute  is  small,  fatigue  follows  sooner.  So  im- 
portant   is    this    matter    of   obtaining   oxygen,    that    the 


fatigul:,  posture,  and  disease  38o 

capacity  of  the  lungs  is  sometimes  called  the  vital 
capacity. 

Elimination  of  Fatigue  Poisons. — Several  conditions 
contribute  to  the  carrying  away  of  the  toxic  products. 
The  lungs  and  the  skin  are  the  most  important  organs 
in  eliminating  the  products  of  fatigue.  The  transfusion 
of  gases  through  a  membrane  goes  on  most  rapidly 
when  the  gases  on  opposite  sides  of  the  membrane  are 
most  unlike.  Hence  when  the  air  that  is  taken  into 
the  lungs  is  pure,  containing  the  greatest  amount  of 
oxygen  and  none  of  the  gaseous  fatigue  products,  these 
products  will  be  eliminated  from  the  body  with  the 
greatest  rapidity.  If  the  air  that  the  person  breathes 
is  impure,  removal  of  fatigue  products  will  proceed 
slowly.  Exercise  is  beneficial  in  so  far  as  it  quickens 
circulation  and  assists  elimination.  When  it  goes 
beyond  this  point,  exercise  becomes  injurious  and  in- 
duces fatigue  rather  than  prevents  it. 

Methods  of  Investigating  Fatigue. — There  are  several 
methods  of  studying  fatigue.  One  is  by  means  of 
the  chronoscope,  which  is  an  instrument  for  measuring 
short  intervals  of  time,  even  down  to  the  one-thous- 
andth part  of  a  second.  The  interval  between  the 
time  that  a  signal  is  given  and  the  time  that  the  per- 
son responds  is  called  his  reaction  time.  In  general, 
fatigue  increases  reac.tion  time  ;  and  by  knowing  how 
much  it  has  been  increased,  we  are  able  to  estimate  the 
amount,  of  fatigue. 

Esthesiomctcr. — Another  method  of  studying  fatigue 


386  PRINCIPLES  OF  TEACHING 

is  b}-  means  of  the  esthesiometer,  or  sense  measurer. 
This  method  depends  upon  the  fact  that  fatigue  dimin- 
ishes the  acuteness  of  the  senses.  The  usual  manner 
of  employing  this  principle  is  by  means  of  the  sense 
of  touch.  We  learn  in  studying  the  senses  that  the 
points  of  a  pair  of  dividers  must  be  placed  a  certain 
distance  apart  on  a  particular  portion  of  the  skin  be- 
fore they  can  be  recognized  as  two  points.  When  the 
subject  is  fatigued  the  points  must  be  spread  farther 
apart  in  order  to  be  perceived  as  two,  than  when 
he  is  not  fatigued.  We  may  take  the  increase  in  the 
distance  that  the  points  must  be  separated  as  the 
measure  of  fatigue. 

Another  means  of  investigating  fatigue  is  by  means 
of  the  ergograph.  This  is  an  instrument  by  means  of 
which  the  work  done  in  a  limited  interval  of  time  by 
some  organ,  such  as  the  middle  finger  may  be  meas- 
ured. When  a  person  is  not  fatigued,  the  middle 
finger  can  lift  a  certain  weight  a  specified  distance  in 
a  minute.  When  the  person  is  fatigued  he  can  not 
lift  the  weight  so  far.  So  the  decrease  in  the  distance 
that  the  weight  can  be  lifted  in  a  minute  may  be  taken 
as  a  measure  of  fatigue. 

The  Er^^oo^raph. — The  ergograi)]i  consists  of  a  cord 
moving  over  a  friction  wheel,  and  carrying  a  weight  at 
one  end.  The  weight  employed  is  usually  about  one- 
seventh  of  the  weight  of  the  body.  The  other  end  of 
the  string  is  attached  by  a  loop  to  the  middle  finger. 
Tlic  hand   is  fastened  by  straps  and   braces  so  that 


FATICUi;,    POSTURi:,    AND    DISEASE  387 

only  the  finger  is  capable  of  moving.  To  the  string", 
somewhere  along  its  course,  is  attached  a  pencil  which 
makes  a  mark  as  the  finger  pulls  up  the  weight.  The 
paper  upon  which  the  mark  is  made  is  best  attached 
to  a  rotating  drum  so  that  the  variation  in  distance 
for  the  difi"erent  pulls  as  well  as  the  total  distance 
through  which  the  weight  is  pulled  may  be  measured. 
Arithmetical  Calculation. — The  foregoing  methods  of 
studying    fatigue    are    all    i)hyNical    or    physiological. 


Other  methods  purely  mental  have  been  devised.  One 
employs  arithmetical  calculations.  A  person  is  set  to 
adding  ten  columns  of  numbers,  each  column  consist- 
ing of  fifteen  figures.  ^\'hen  a  person  is  not  fatigued, 
he  will  make  a  certain  number  of  mistakes.  When  he 
is  fatigued,  the  number  of  errors  will  be  greater.  The 
increase  in  the  number  of  errors  over  that  made  when 
he  is  not  fatigued,  will  indicate  the  measure  of  his 
fatigue. 

Memory   Test. — Similarly,   memory   may  be  used   as 
a  test  for  fatigue.     A  person  can  commit  to  memory, 


3SS  [•KI.\CIPLI-:S   Ol'    TEACHING 

a  certain  number  of  lines,  or  nonsense  syllables,  with 
a  certain  number  of  repetitions  when  he  is  not  fatigued. 
When  he  is  fatigued,  he  must  employ  a  larger  number 
of  repetitions,  or  he  can  learn  a  smaller  number  of 
syllables  \vith  one  reading.  The  number  of  repeti- 
tions that  are  required,  or  the  number  of  syllables  that 
can  be  learned  with  one  reading  may  be  taken  as  the 
measure  of  fatigue. 

Variations  of  luiti_i:;uc  in  One  Day. — By  the  use  of 
some  or  all  of  these  methods  much  has  been  learned 
about  the  fatigue  incident  to  a  school  day.  Begin- 
ning with  the  first  hour  in  the  morning,  fatigue  does 
not  begin  to  manife-c  itself  for  the  first  half  an  hour  or 
more.  It  becomes  apparent  at  the  end  of  the  first 
hour,  and  steadily  increases  until  the  noon  recess.  Then 
there  is  a  rapid  recuperation  until  the  first  period  in 
tlie  afternoon,  after  which  fatigue  increases  rather 
steadily  until  four  o'clock  when  school  closes.  The 
h(vur  from  three  to  four  is  a  better  hour  for  school 
work  than  is  the  hour  from  eleven  to  twelve. 

Dififerent  subjects  are  found  to  have  dififerent  fa- 
tigue results.  Subjects  in  which  there  is  much  mem- 
orizing, are  found  to  be  the  most  fatiguing.  Latin 
mathematics,  and  grammar  are  most  so ;  music  and 
drawing  the  least.  There  is  a  difiference  in  the  re- 
sults of  investigations  concerning  physical  exercise ; 
some  investigators  report  it  the  most  fatiguing,  others 
report  it  the  least.  It  probably  depends  upon  the 
length  of  time  and  the  intensitv  of  the  exertion  whether 


FATIGUli,    I'OSTURK.    AND    DISKASK  389 

it  is  fatiguing  or  not.  Some  investigators  have  re- 
ported different  hours  in  ihe  day  as  Iiaving  different 
fatigue  value,  tluis  establishing  a  kind  of  fatigue 
rlivthm.  The  probability  is  that  there  is  no  particular 
fatigue  value  either  for  a  certain  hour  or  for  a  speci- 
fied subject,  but  tliat  the  fatigue  resulting  from  a 
s])ecific  subject  in  a  certain  hour  depends  ujion  the 
amount  of  ner\ous  energy  that  is  expended  in  study^- 
ing  that  subject,  or  in  that  particular  hour. 

In  school  we  may  ol)serve  several  external  signs  of 
fatigue.     In  bad  cases,  we  may  observe  ner\'ousness, 


Time 

VIII 


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, 

\. 

-.„    .•■' 

Fatigue  Curve. 

inattention,    inability     to     learn,     the     drawn     and     set 
countenance.    All  of  these  are  signs  of  fatigue. 

Feeling  and  /''(;//-//r. — We  have  alread}  observed 
that  a  brain  cell  fatigues  much  more  readily  than  does 
a  nerve  fiber.  We  may  associate  this  with  the  fact 
that  a  nervous  impulse  encounters  much  more  re- 
sistance in  a  brain  center  than  it  does  in  a  nerve.  So 
too,  any  action  that  is  haljitual,  is  less  fatiguing  than 
one  that  is  new  and  unfamiliar,  ^^'e  may  associate 
this  with  the  fact  that  a  new  action  is  accompanied  by 


390  TKIXCII'LES   OF    TEACHING 

a  niucli  greater  resistance  than  is  the  habitual  one. 
As  a  result  of  these  and  similar  observations  we  may 
make  the  assertion  that  fatigue  is  directly  associated 
with  resistance.  It  can  be  shown  to  be  highly  probable 
that  resistance  in  a  nervous  arc  is  directly  associated 
with  feeling.  Hence  we  may  recognize  as  a  fact  that 
tlie  greater  the  amount  of  feeling  which  accompanies 
an  act  the  greater  the  fatigue  engendered. 

Pain  ami  fatigue. — Painful  or  unpleasant  activities 
are  usuall}-  more  fatiguing  than  are  those  that  are 
pleasant,  or  indifferent,  or  less  painful.  Painful  feel- 
ing is  nearly  always  associated  with  a  strong  resist- 
ance, while  a  pleasant  feeling  is  usually  associated 
with  a  resistance  not  so  strong.  Hence  we  may  have 
an  explanation  for  the  fact  that  acti\-ities  accompanied 
by  feelings  of  an  tm])leasant  tone  are  fatiguing,  wdiilo 
those  that  are  accompanied  by  feelings  of  a  pleasant 
tone  are  less  fatiguing. 

Pleasure  and  Fatigue. — But,  even  actions  accompa- 
nied b}-  feelings  of  a  pleasant  tone  will  produce  fa- 
tigue, which  i>  less  likclx  to  l)c  the  ca^^e  with  activities 
accompanied  by  feelings  ha\ing  an  indift'erent  tone. 
H  the  feeling  accom])anying  an  act  is  one  of  indif- 
ference, we  shall  likely  have  nmscular  fatigue  mani- 
festing itself  before  the  nervous  fatigue  appears. 

r.KFT-H  .\  i\  1)1£DX  ESS 

Breaking  a  Cliild  of  Left-Handeduess. — Some  chil- 
dren are  left-handed  and  others  arc  rio-ht-handed.     The 


l-WTIGUt:,    i'OSTURE,    AND    DISEASE  391 

practical  question  for  teachers  and  parents  is,  "Shall 
we  break  a  child  of  being  left-handed  and  compel  him 
to  use  his  right  hand  ?  The  reasons  for  doing  so 
are  found  in  the  fact  that  a  great  majority  of  persons 
are  right-handed,  and  our  conventions  are  adapted  gen- 
erally for  right-handed  persons,  so  that  a  left-handed 
person  appears  awkward  and   conspicuous.     We  shake 


The  Left  Half  of  the  Human  Cerebrum. 

The  words  "leg,"  ■■trunk."  ■"arm."  "■face."  are  printed  over  tlie 
centers  that  control  the  corresponding  parts  of  the  body. 
Other  words  show  where  different  sensations  and  memories 
are  located. 

hands,  with  the  right  hand.  We  write  toward  the  right 
side  of  the  page,  and  we  read  in  the  same  direction. 
Tools  of  all  kinds  are  made  for  use  with  the  right 
hand,  and  few  tool-makers  make  tools  for  lcft-hande<l 
persons. 

Right-Handcducss    and    Speech.  —  Right-handedness 
is   associated    with    the    development     of     speech.       The 


392  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHIXG 

child  becomes  right-handed  or  left-handed  before  he 
can  talk,  and  it  is  probable  that  right-handedness  is 
associated  with  the  development  of  the  speech  center 
in  the  left  hemisphere  of  the  brain.  The  speech  center 
is  situated  near  the  lower  part  of  the  fissure  of  Ro- 
lando, in  close  proximity  to  the  motor  a''ea,  and  in 
fact  constitutes  a  portion  of  that  area.  The  muscles  of 
speech  are  mostly  medial  organs,  and  while  they  might 
with  equal  facility  be  innervated  from  either  side  of 
the  brain,  in  nearly  all  persons  they  are  imiervated 
from  the  left  side. 

Hoiv  Right-Handedness  Favors  Speech. — The  motor 
area  for  the  hand  and  arm  of  the  right  side  of  the 
body  is  in  close  proximity  to  the  speech  center  on  the 
left  side  of  the  brain.  It  is  well  known  that  the  de- 
velopment of  one  portion  of  the  brain  area  is  likely 
to  produce  a  modification  of  adjacent  areas,  so  that 
the  development  of  the  motor  area  for  the  right  hand 
and  arm  is  likely  to  produce  a  development  of  the 
speech  center  in  close  proximity  to  it.  Hence  we  see 
that  the  development  of  the  speech  center  is  aided  by 
the  development  of  the  muscular  movements  of  the 
right  hand  and  arm. 

Left-Handcdncss  and  Speech. — A  left-handed  person 
may  have  the  speech  center  on  the  left  side  of  the 
brain,  or  he  may  have  it  on  the  right  side.  With 
nearly  all  persons  there  is  probably  a  strong  hereditary 
tendency  to  have  it  on  the  left  side  of  the  brain.  If  n 
bft-lianded    person   has    the    speech    center   on    the    left 


FATIGUE,    POSTURE,    AND   DISEASE  393 

side  of  the  brain,  it  implies  that  the  speech  center  is 
developed  under  the  inliuence  of  heredity  rather  than 
in  consequence  of  the  movements  of  the  hand  and  arm. 
The  tendency  to  organize  the  speech  center  on  the 
left  side  of  the  brain,  which  arises  as  a  consequence 
of  descent  from  many  generations  of  right-handed 
people,  may  be  strong  enough  to  overcome  the  in- 
fluence of  the  use  of  the  left  hand,  which  undoubtedly 
would  tend  to  make  the  speech  center  on  the  right 
side.  This  fact  may  furnish  an  explanation  of  sonic 
other  phenomena. 

Left-Handcd  Children  Often  Defective  in  Speech. — 
Some  psychologists  have  asserted  that  every  left- 
handed  child  has  some  kind  of  a  defect  in  his  speech. 
It  may  be  a  lisp  or  a  stammer  or  a  stutter.  If  the 
speech  center  in  any  case,  is  on  the  right  side,  there 
is  no  reason  why  a  left-handed  child  should  have  a 
defect  in  his  s]iccch.  If,  howcxcr,  the  Icft-lianded  child 
does  manifest  a  defect  in  speech,  it  is  e\  idence  tolerably 
strong  that  the  speech  center  is  on  the  left  side.  Also, 
we  may  afifirm  that  not  all  left-handed  children  will 
have  a  defect  in  speech,  for  some  of  them  undoubtedly 
have  the  speech  center  on  the  right  side. 

Why  Not  Break  a  Child  of  Being  Left-Handedf— 
Xov.'  returning  to  the  practical  question,  we  shall  see 
that  undertaking  to  break  a  child  from  being  left- 
handed  is  likely  to  disturb  the  development  of  the 
speech  center,  and  to  injure  seriousl\-  the  power  to 
talk.     Other  mcnt;il  processes  are  likely  to  be  im])aired, 


394  PRIXCll'LliS   OF    TliAClUXr. 

and  the  formation  of  associations  between  brain  cen- 
ters prevented.  The  entire  effect  is  likely  to  be  dis- 
astrous to  the  course  of  mental  development.  It  is 
a  safe  rule  to  follow,  never  to  break  a  child  from 
l)eing  left-handed  after  he  has  begun  to  talk. 

.-]/;  Exception. — There  is  one  consideration,  however, 
that  may  be  regarded  as  a  modification  of  the  above 
rule.  When  a  child  is  left-handed  and  has  not  learned 
to  write,  it  may  be  worth  while  to  teach  him  to  use 
his  right  hand  in  writing,  although  his  natural  dis- 
position would  lead  him  to  use  his  left  hand.  The  ad- 
vantages of  using  the  right  hand  in  writing  are  many 
and  great.  We  write  toward  the  right  hand  side  of 
the  page.  It  is  a  pure  conxentionality,  and  the  people 
who  first  taught  us  to  employ  writing  might  just  as 
well  have  adopted  the  practice  of  going  from  right  to 
left,  or  from  top  to  bottom,  or  bottom  to  top.  But  the 
plan  was  adopted  to  go  from  the  left  toward  the  right, 
and  we  must  of  necessity  conform  to  it.  If  we  use  the 
right  hand  in  writing,  we  are  writing  away  from  the 
median  line  of  the  body  and  can  see  the  portion  of  the 
letter  or  the  word  that  has  already  been  written  with- 
out looking  over  the  writing  hand.  If,  however,  we 
use  the  left  hand  in  writing,  we  are  writing  toward  the 
median  line  of  the  body,  and  in  order  to  see  the  portion 
of  the  word  that  has  already  Ix'cn  written,  we  must 
look  over  the  writing  hand.  In  consequence  of  this 
conventionality  there  is  a  distinct  advantage  in  using 
the  right  hand  in   writing.     To  learn  a  new  act  is  very 


l-ATKUE,    POSTURE,    AND    DISEASE  395 

different  from  breaking  away  from  one  hal)it  and  learn- 
ing the  action  in  another  way.  If  a  child  has  already 
learned  to  write  with  his  left  hand,  there  can  IJe  no 
question  that  it  is  better  to  let  him  continue  to  use  it. 
Unidcxtcrity  and  School  Staiidiii^^. — There  is  a  theory 
widely  prevalent  but  seldom  acted  upon,  that  a  per- 
son ought  to  become  as  skillful  in  the  use  of  one  hand 
as  the  other.  Some  teachers  have  insisted  that  children 
should  become  ambidextrous.  Investigations  do  not 
reveal  anything  to  support  this  notion.  Investigations 
show  that  the  children  in  school  who  are  at  and  above 
grade  are  decidedly  more  unidextrous  than  the  children 
below  grade.  Also  the  children  in  juvenile  ])risons, 
all  of  whom  are  criminals,  and  all  of  them  below  erade 
intellectually,  are  dccitledly  less  unidextrous  and  more 
nearly  ambidextrous  than  are  the  children  below  grade 
in  the  ordinary  school.  It  seems  as  if  there  is  a  direct 
relation  betv.een  unidexteritv  and  school  standiu"-. 

Xervousxess 

Test  for  Xcrzviisiirss. — Some  children  in  school  are 
nervous.  Xerx'ous  children  cannot  sit  si  ill.  '\'\\c\-  jump 
at  a  sudden  noise,  are  wear}-,  and  easih-  fatigued. 
Sometimes  nervousness  becomes  chronic  and  so  ])ro- 
nounced  that  it  is  called  chorea,  or  St.  \'itus  dance. 
The  teacher  may  test  for  nerxousne^s  in  various  ways. 
If  he  asks  all  children  to  stand  with  their  hands  and 
arms  outstretched,  the  nervous  children  will  lie  indi- 
cated  by   the   conxulsive   or   twitching   movements   of 


396  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

their  outstretched  hands.  If  the  hands  of  a  nervous 
child  are  laid  palm  downward  upon  the  hands  of  the 
teacher  a  twitching  can  be  felt  that  is  rather  a  deli- 
cate test  for  nervousness.  ^ 

Serious  Nature  of  Nervousness. — Nervousness  is  a 
disease  of  a  rather  serious  nature.  In  its  worst  forms 
it  becomes  nervous  prostration,  which  is  the  result  of 
continued  fatigue  reaching  the  point  of  complete  ex- 
haustion. The  probabilit}'  is  great  that,  when  the  de- 
gree of  nervous  exhaustion  is  reached  which  is  indi- 
cated by  the  correct  use  of  the  term  nervous  prostra- 
tion, the  nerve  cells  never  completely  recover.  The  in- 
jury is  permanent. 

Cause  of  Neri'ousness. — This  association  of  nervous- 
ness with  fatigue  gives  us  the  key  to  its  nature.  Nerv- 
ousness indicates  a  lack  of  nervous  energy,  which  is 
perhaps  manifested  more  positively  through  the  failure 
of  the  processes  of  attention  than  in  any  other  way. 
The  mechanism  that  erratic  nervous  impulses  employ 
to  escape  into  the  motor  centers,  giving  rise  to  the  jerk- 
ings  and  twitchings  of  nervousness,  probably  exists 
in  the  brain  centers.  The  i)roper  treatment,  rest,  is  in- 
dicated by  this  diagnosis  of  its  cause.  A  nervous  child 
must  not  be  burdened  with  work  either  physical  or 
mental.  Good  food,  plenty  of  it.  with  abundance  of 
fresh  air  and  a  sufficient  amount  of  exercise  to  produce 
the  best  condition  of  circulation  is  a1wut  all  that  can 
be  done  for  nervous  children.  Most  cases  of  ner\-ous- 
ness  which  are  attributed  to  ihe  schools  arise  from  out- 


FATIGUI-:,    I'USTURt:.    AXIJ    DISEASE  0^)7 

side  conditions  not  connected  directly  with  school 
work.  ]\lany  children  stay  out  late  at  night  attending 
parties  and  other  social  functions,  and  the  resulting 
nervous  condition  is  charged  to  the  schools.  Fre- 
quently it  is  attendance  upon  the  meetings  of  organ- 
izations of  the  students  themselves  in  the  school, 
rather  than  the  regular  school  work,  to  which  the 
nervous  condition  must  be  attributed.  Occasionally 
there  is  a  case  of  overwork  in  school  to  which  the 
nervousness  must  be  charged,  but  these  cases  are 
rare  compared  with  the  number  that  ought  to  be 
charged  up  to  something  else. 

Kcrvonsncss  and  Schookcork. — Other  conditions 
than  overwork  cause  the  larger  part  of  the  nervous- 
ness that  is  properly  chargeable  to  the  school.  Worry, 
which  means  an  excessive  amount  of  attention  given 
in  such  a  way  as  to  be  accompanied  by  a  painful  tone, 
so  using  up  a  large  amount  of  nervous  energy,  is  a 
frequent  cause.  The  amount  of  pressure  brought  to 
bear  upon  a  class  in  order  to  induce  the  stupid  and 
lazy  ones  to  learn  their  lessons,  is  likely  to  induce 
worrv  and  consequent  nervousness  in  tlie  i)upils  who 
do  not  need  such  pressure.  The  nerxous  children  are 
frequently  the  brightest  and  most  conscientious  pupils 
in  the  class.  Their  very  brightness  and  conscientious- 
ness may  be  the  occasion  of  their  nervousness.  Scold- 
ing by  the  teacher,  inducing  worry,  is  likely  to  result 
in  nervousness.  Examinations,  where  great  emphasis 
is   laid   upon   them,   may   produce   the   same   effect   in 


398  TRIXCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

some  children.  The  nervous  child  must  not  be  urged 
to  undertake  more  work.  Even  though  he  be  the 
brightest  pupil  in  the  class,  and  can  learn  his  lessons 
the  most  easily,  he  must  be  prohibited  from  taking 
the  full  amount  of  work  that  other  children  carry. 

POSITIOX     AND     AIOVEMEXT. 

Importance  of  Proper  Position. — Posture  has  much 
to  do  with  the  attitude  toward  school  work  that  a 
child  manifests.  A  sprawling  posture  indicates  a 
sprawling  habit  of  mind.  One  of  tlie  most  certain 
methods  of  inculcating  the  proper  h.abit  of  mind  is  to 
induce  the  proper  attitude  of  body.  ^Movement  is 
much  the  same  kind  of  phenomenon.  The  person  who 
walks  erect  and  promptly  is  likely  to  manifest  an  erect 
and  prompt  habit  of  mind. 

Kind  of  School  Desks. — Proper  position  in  school  is 
likely  to  he  much  facilitated  by  the  proper  kind  of 
seats.  The  seat  should  be  as  high  from  the  floor  as 
the  length  of  the  leg  from  the  sole  of  the  foot  to  the 
under  side  of  the  knee  when  the  knee  is  bent.  The 
back  of  the  seat  should  be  so  shaped  that  it  wnll  con- 
form to  the  curves  of  the  spine,  so  that  the  entire 
back  of  the  seat  ma\-  be  in  contact  with  the  body.  The 
desk  in  front  should  be  high  enough  so  that  the  bent 
elbows  can  l)e  placed  on  it  without  raising  them  or 
stooping  over.  The  edge  of  the  desk  in  front  should 
overhang  the  edge  of  the  seat  by  about  two  inches. 
Unfortunately  many  children  arc  occupying  seats  that 


FATIGUE,    POSTURE,    AND    DISEASE  399 

are  not  adapted  l>)  ihcir  size.  Adjustable  seats  may 
be  obtained,  l)Ul  they  are  expensive  and  awkward  to 
adjust.  The  best  plan  seems  to  be  to  seat  about  three- 
fourths  of  the  room  with  non-adjustable  seats  and  then 
buy  adjustable  seats  of  various  sizes  for  the  rest  of 
the  room. 

Coiitai^ioiis  Diseases. — A  child  that  is  found  to  be 
affected  with  a  contagious  disease  should  l)e  sent  away 
from  school.  This  rule  is  so  nearly  always  complied 
with  that  there  is  little  occasion  for  its  discussion.  A 
child  that  is  sick  does  not  wish  to  come  to  school;  but 
in  the  earliest  stages  of  disease  he  may  not  know  that 
he  is  sick.  It  is  scarcely  possible  for  the  teacher  to 
depend  upon  his  own  recognition  of  disease,  and  it  is 
expecting  too  much  from  him  to  hold  him  responsible 
for  discovering  it.  However,  he  can  contribute  very 
much  to  the  immunity  of  the  children  by  full  and 
proper  ventilation.  Few  diseases  will  be  contracted 
in  the  open  air.  and  there  is  little  reason  to  be  appre- 
hensive about  contracting  any  if  the  room  is  well  venti- 
lated. The  floor  and  the  walls  should  be  kept  as  clean 
as  possible,  for  it  is  in  dust  and  dirt  that  the  germs  of 
disease  chieflv  accumulate. 

Synopsis 

1.  Fatigue  in  school  is  nearly  always  nerve 
fatigue,  and  arises  from  an  excessive  expenditure  of 
nervous  energy.  It  is  felt  to  be  general  over  the  body 
in   consequence  of  the   distribution   of  toxic   fatigue- 


400  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

products  by  the  blood,  when  they  are  produced  more 
rapidly  than  they  can  be  eliminated. 

2.  Good  food,  fresh  air,  sufficient  exercise  are  the 
most  important  factors  in  preventing  fatigue. 

3.  A  child  who  has  learned  to  talk  and  who  mani- 
fests a  disposition  to  lie  left-handed  should  not  be 
broken  of  his  left-handedness.  Such  a  procedure  is 
likely  to  disturb  the  power  to  speak,  and  interrupt 
the  development  of  other  brain  connections  and  mental 
processes. 

4.  Nervousness  may  be  induced  by  a  variety  of 
school  conditions,  chief  of  which  is  worry.  The  proper 
treatment  of  nervousness  is  rest. 

5.  Posture  and  movement  are  indications  of 
mental  attitudes.  ( )ne  of  the  most  important  means 
of  inducing  the  projier  mental  attitude  toward  school 
work  is  to  engender  the  proper  habit  of  posture  and 
of  movement. 


CHAPTER   XXIV 
The  Course  of  Study 

Jefferson  and  the  Public  School  System. — Thomas 
Jefferson  was  a  magnificent  dreamer.  He  dreamed  of 
a  condiiiun  of  society  in  which  the  rulers  should  be 
chosen  by  the  people.  He  dreamed  of  a  government  in 
which  the  laws  should  be  made  by  representatives 
whom  the  people  should  elect,  and  he  believed  that 
laws  so  made  would  be  willingly  and  cheerfully 
obeyed.  He  dreamed  of  a  country  in  which  actual  and 
complete  justice  should  be  maintained  between  man 
and  man,  and  that  the  liberty  guaranteed  by  trial  by 
jury  should  be  realized  in  fact  as  well  as  in  theory. 
He  dreamed  of  a  condition  in  which  all  people  should 
be  educated,  and  by  this  he  meant  that  all  persons 
should  learn  to  read  and  write,  for  that  was  the  limit 
of  general  educaticm,  even  to  his  magnificent  concep- 
tion. 

Condition  of  Education  Before  the  Public  Schools. 
— It  is  difficult  for  us  to  realize  the  concept'on  of  edti- 
cation  in  the  minds  of  people  generally  at  the  time 
that  Thomas  Jefferson  lived.  Reading  and  writing 
were  rather  unusual  accomplishments  over  great  por- 
tions of  the  country,  and  a  large  proportion  of  the 
soldiers  who  fought  in  the   Revolutionary  W^.r  were 

401 


|()2  I'klXClI'l.F.S    OF    'll-.AClllXd 

illiterate.  Perhaps  {\u>  explains  the  sinall  mimher  of 
pergonal  accounts  of  revolutionary  incidents  tlial  have 
come  down  to  us  in  writing. 

Few  persons  believed  it  possible  ever  to  attain  the 
ideal  of  universal  education,  and  there  were  many 
who  believed  it  to  be  undesirable  that  all  persons 
should  be  educated,  even  to  the  extent  of  learning  how 
to  read  and  write.  They  argued  that  it  furnished 
power  to  the  crimmal  to  commit  crime,  which  he 
would  not  have  if  he  were  uneducated.  It  would  make 
of  an  ordinary  criminal  a  much  more  dangerous  one. 
Besides,  they  argued,  education  would  unfit  many  per- 
sons for  the  kind  of  work  they  must  do.  \\'e  still  hear 
echoes  of  such  objections  to  education,  but  they  are 
few,  and  no  longer  considered  as  a  serious  menace  ti> 
edticational  institutions. 

Provision  of  the  Ordinance  of  lySj. — But  Thomas 
Jefferson,  magnificent  dreamer  that  he  was,  never 
dreamed  of  a  condition  of  society  in  which  people 
ANould  be  willing  to  tax  themselves  for  the  support  of 
schools,  open  to  all  children  of  the  district,  withotit 
payment  of  tuition.  That  was  beyond  his  power  of 
conception.  He  believed  that  it  would  be  necessary 
to  create  an  endowment  fund  from  the  proceeds  of 
which  sch(V)ls  should  be  maintained  for  the  purposes 
of  universal  education.  So  he  was  instriunental  in 
having  incorporated  into  the  ordinance  of  1787  a  pro- 
\ision  setting  aside  the  sixteenth  section  of  everv 
township  in  the   Northwest  Territory    as  a  nucleus   for 


THE    COUKSK    Ol"    STUDY  403 

this  ciidowmcnl  fund.  Tlu-  states  f)f  (  Jliio,  Indiana, 
Illinois,  Michigan,  and  Wisconsin  were  carved  out  of 
the  Xortliwest  Territory  ;  and  it  is  in  these  states  that 
the  development  of  the  peculiarly  American  Institu- 
tion, the  free  public  school,  is  best  exemplified.  The 
older  states  have  been  hampered  by  tradition  more 
than  have  these,  and  the  newer  states  have  profited  by 
their  example, 

Tlic  Sixteenth  Section. — This  grant  of  the  sixteenth 
section  in  every  township  was  a  magnificent  endow- 
ment, but  it  has  been  largely  squandered.  As  soon  as 
the  land  became  worth  anything,  and  anybody  wanted 
it,  it  was  not  difficult  to  induce  legislatures  to  pass 
laws  permitting  its  sale,  and  short-sighted  ofBcials 
proved  poor  trustees  for  the  interests  of  posterity. 
In  at  least  one  township  in  Illinois,  one  old  man  suc- 
ceeded in  defeating  every  proposition  to  sell  the  school 
section,  and  the  township  owns  it  today,  land  worth 
one  hundred  fifty  dollars  an  acre,  and  the  income 
from  it  supports  every  school  in  the  township  without 
local  taxation. 

Curricidutn  of  the  Earliest  Schools. — The  earliest 
schools  which  may  be  considered  the  progenitors  of 
the  free  public  schools,  taught  especially  reading  and 
writing.  The  purpose  was  evident.  Reading  and 
writing  were  utilitarian  subjects,  a  knowledge  of 
which  was  very  useful  to  every  person.  If  a  person 
could  read,  there  was  no  necessity  for  him  to  get 
somebodv  to  read  his  letters  for  him,  when  he  received 


404  I'KIXCII'LES   OF    TEACHING 

any  ;  and  he  would  not  be  at  the  expense  of  employing 
some  one  to  write  his  letters  when  he  wished  to  reply. 
Besides  that,  he  could  read  and  understand  books  and 
newspapers.  Reading  and  writing  were  felt  to  be 
\'ery  useful  accomplishments. 

The  Three  R's. — But  as  soon  as  schools  were  estab- 
lished for  the  teaching  of  reading  and  writing,  it  was 
recognized  that  the  alnlity  to  cipher,  or  to  perform 
simple  arithmetical  operations,  had  also  a  great  eco- 
nomic A'alue.  A  man  might  find  out  by  means  of  such 
knowledge  when  he  was  being  cheated  in  his  pur- 
chases, and  would  be  able  to  calculate  what  he  ought 
to  receive  when  he  sold  his  produce.  So  arithmetic 
became  a  common  school  subject,  ^^'e  have  now 
reached  that  trinity  of  common  school  subjects 
known  as  the  three  R's  complete.  This  point  in  the 
development  of  the  curriculum  of  the  common  schools 
was  reached  somewhere  in  the  period  from  1812  to 
1820.  In  this  period,  the  common  schools,  intended 
for  the  education  of  children  who  did  not  intend  to 
prepare  for  going  to  college,  taught  but  little  else. 

Grniimiar,  History,  Gcoi^raphy. — But  no  sooner  were 
the  three  R's  adopted  as  common  school  subjects  than 
other  subjects  began  to  be  taught  in  the  schools. 
Grammar  was  added  and  its  introduction  was  justi- 
fied by  various  arguments.  Tt  A\as  said  that  grammar 
would  teach  children  to  write  and  speak  the  language 
correctly.  Thus  people  attempted  to  justify  its  intro- 
duction on  economic  grounds. 


THE    COURSE    OF    STUDY 


40: 


The  same  thing  was  true  of  geography,  which  was 
introduced  as  a  school  subject  for  the  alleged  reason 
that  it  would  be  advantageous  to  any  person  who 
might  wish  to  travel ;  or  to  a  merchant  who  might 
\vish  to  import  or  export  goods.  Economic  reasons 
for  introducing  history  w'ere  not  so  clearly  manifest, 
but  its  addition  was  justified  upon  the  grounds  that 
it  would  make  the  boys  more  intelligent  voters ;  that 
it  would  lead  to  the  selection  of  better  olificers  and  rep- 
resentatives ;  that  it  would  make  men  more  ready  to 
enlist  in  the  army  in  case  a  war  should  arise.  Prob- 
ably it  was  this  last  consideration  that  led  to  the  writ- 
ing of  histories  which  concerned  themselves  princi- 
pally with  the  events  of  wars  and  battles  and  sieges. 
An  exact  enumeration  of  the  pages  in  a  very  popu- 
lar school  history  published  in  1868  shows  that  48 
pages  were  devoted  to  colonial  history,  the  events  re- 
lated in  which  occurred  before  the  United  States  was 
established;  29  pages  of  full  page  maps,  tables,  reviev/ 
questions ;  91  pages  devoted  to  the  French  and  In- 
dian war,  Revolutionary  AA'ar.  War  of  1812,  Mexican 
War  and  the  Civil  Wa-v.  while  oiih^  seventeen  pages 
were  devoted  to  the  history  of  the  United  States 
proper,  exclusive  of  the  wars. 

The  Seven  Common  Branches. — We  have  now  intro- 
duced into  our  curriculum  the  branches  of  reading, 
writing,  arithmetic,  grammar,  geography,  and  history. 
These  with  spelling  constituted  the  seven  common 
branches  of  later  vears.     It  is  not  meant  tliat  no  other 


406  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

subjects  were  taught  in  the  schools,  even  in  those 
which  were  the  direct  ancestors  of  the  free  public 
schools;  but  that  these  came  to  be  recognized  as  ap- 
propriate subjects  for  every  common  school,  whether 
other  things  were  taught  or  not.  Hence  it  came  about 
that  when  the  free,  common,  public  school,  supported 
by  public  taxation,  became  thoroughly  organized  and 
established  somewhere  in  the  years  between  1837  and 
1855,  the  seven  common  branches  were  recognized  as 
appropriate  and  necessary  subjects  of  instruction  in 
those  schools. 

Idea  of  Industrial  Efficiency,  or  Practical  Utility..— 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  introduction  of  each  one 
of  these  subjects  was  justified  by  the  immediate  prac- 
tical benefit  that  was  expected  to  accrue  to  the  indi- 
vidual from  its  study.  There  was  no  attempt  to 
justify  it  on  the  ground  of  mental  discipline  or  moral 
development,  or  that  they  were  things  which  gentle- 
men should  know^  The  reasons  assigned  for  their  in- 
troduction were  not  often  valid,  but  they  were  be- 
lieved to  be  justified  on  economic  grounds. 

Introduction  of  Science. — When  the  curriculum  of 
the  seven  common  branches  had  become  established, 
other  subjects  began  to  demand  admission.  There 
were  at  this  time,  and  for  years  afterward,  sporadic  at- 
tempts to  teach  algebra,  geometry,  and  occasionally 
some  ambitious  college  student,  teaching  in  the  long 
vacation  of  his  college,  would  organize  a  Latin  class. 
Subsequent!}-    sprang   iqi   a    demand    for   the   teaching 


THE    COURSE    OF    STUDY  407 

(it  natural  science.  This  demand  followed  upon  the 
great  development  of  interest  in  science  accompany- 
ing tile  publication  of  "Darwin's  Origin  of  Species." 
Still  another  influence,  which  was  perhaps  equally  in.- 
portant  in  this  country,  was  the  inspiration  arising 
from  the  teaching  of  zoology  by  Louis  Agassiz  at 
Harvard. 

Organisation  of  High  Schools. — We  have  now  a 
course  of  study  for  the  common  schools,  composed 
of  the  seven  common  branches,  and  more  or  less  in- 
definitely, the  sul)jects  of  algebra,  geometry,  zoology, 
botany.  ph\siology,  natural  philosophy,  astronomy, 
and  occasionally  Latin  and  German.  This  point  in 
the  development  of  the  curriculum  was  reached  some- 
where in  the  early  seventies.  Then  began  the  develop- 
ment of  the  free,  public  high  school.  There  were  few 
of  these  schools  before  1868,  but  by  1880  the  high 
school  had  taken  on  its  definite  form  and  had  become 
well  established.  There  were  forty  high  schools  in  the 
United  States  in  1860.  while  in  1880  there  were  eight 
hundred.  The  number  in  1900  was  6,005.  The  sub- 
jects of  algebra,  geometry,  Latin,  zoology,  botany,  and 
others  were  assigned  to  the  high  schools,  and  the  ele- 
mentarv  schools  were  told  to  confine  their  efiforts  to 
the  teaching  of  the  seven  common  branches.  So  the 
common  school  curriculum  was  made. 

Music  and  Drazcing. — But  it  would  not  stay  made. 
Music  began  to  demand  attention,  and  the  schools 
were    compelled    to   listen    to   the    demand.      Drawiu'.,' 


408  PRINCIPLES   OF    TEACHING 

was  also  seeking  admission  to  the  curricuhnn.  It  was 
attempted  to  justify  the  demand  for  the  introduction 
of  these  subjects  by  economic  reasons.  Music  made 
discipline  easier.  It  had  a  soothing  effect.  Then  the 
old  demand  for  the  study  of  science  appeared  under 
the  guise  of  a  demand  for  nature  study.  The  children 
in  the  city  were  supposed  to  be  suft'ering  from  a  lack 
of  opportunity  to  learn  about  nature.  In  the  rural 
districts  the  same  reasons  for  introducing  nature  study 
did  not  seem  to  exist,  and  it  has  never  been  so  popu- 
lar in  rural  communities  as  in  cities,  although  under 
the  name  of  "Elements  of  Agriculture,"  with  the  eco- 
nomic justification,  it  has  attained  considerable  promi- 
nence. Physical  training  and  manual  training,  justi- 
fied on  economic  grounds,  have  been  introduced  int<:) 
many  schools.  Manual  training  meant  at  first,  work- 
ing in  wood  with  tools  ;  but  lateh',  under  the  name  of 
construction  work,  and  with  a  variety  of  materials,  it 
has  entered  all  grades  of  the  school.  Algebra  is  again 
demanding  a  place  in  the  elementary  curriculum,  antl 
the  same  may  be  said  of  geometry  and  (ierman. 

Three  R's  Ne^^lected? — The  curriculum  of  the  three 
R's,  or  even  of  the  seven  common  branches,  has  been 
overshadowed  by  the  introduction  of  newer  subjects 
Complaint  is  often  made  that  such  an  overcrowded 
curriculum  is  disastrous  to  the  health  of  the  teachers, 
and  even  more  to  the  nervous  condition  of  the  chil- 
dren. Our  schools  are  said  to  be  running  to  fads,  and 
teachers    are    advised    strongly    by    the    critics    of    the 


THE    COURSE    OF    STUDY  409 

schools  to  go  back  to  the  three  R's  and  teach  them 
well.  Critics  of  the  schools  point  to  the  fact  tliat 
children  do  not  read  well,  nor  write  well,  nor  spell 
well,  nor  cipher  well.  Hence  the  schools  are  said  to 
be  teaching  the  wrong  things,  or  teaching  the  right 
things  in  the  w'rong  way. 

Three  R's  Well  Taught.— The  advice  to  teach  the 
three  R's  to  the  exclusion  of  other  subjects  of  more 
recent  introduction  is  not  good  unless  it  can  be  shown 
that  the  three  R's  are  not  so  well  taught  as  they  were 
before  the  introduction  of  other  subjects.  There  is 
less  strain  experienced  in  the  teaching  of  the  common 
branches  than  there  was  once,  but  all  indications 
available  point  to  the  fact  that  the  three  R's  were 
never  before  so  well  taught  as  they  are  today.  In- 
dications of  this  are  to  be  found  in  such  comparisons 
as  that  of  the  Springfield  examinations.  A  few  years 
ago,  a  principal  of  Springfield,  Massachusetts,  un- 
earthed a  set  of  examination  papers  in  arithmetic  and 
spelling  that  had  been  written  by  the  pupils  of  the 
school  just  fifty  years  before.  The  same  questions 
were  given  to  the  children  of  the  eighth  grade  in  the 
same  school,  and  since  then  to  children  in  many  other 
cities,  with  the  almost  invariable  result  that  the  chil- 
dren of  the  present  day  wrote  more  accurately  and  in- 
telligently than  did  those  of  fifty  years  before.  Thi< 
is  true,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  children  who 
wrote  the  papers  fifty  years  before  were  older,  that 
the  school  year  was  longer:  and  the  school  reports 


410  PRIXCII'LES    01"    TliAClllXG 

show   that   special   attention    had   been   given    in    that 
year  to  the   teaching  of  arithmetic   and   spelling. 

Why  Better  Taught  A'ozi'  Than  Formerly. — The  rea- 
son is  obvious.  In  1846  the  children  below  this  grade 
had  read  as  a  requirement  in  school  only  eleven  books. 
Now  the  cliildren  in  the  eighth  grade  have  read  from 
fifty  to  sixty  or  seventy  books.  In  arithmetic,  prac- 
tical work  in  measurement  results  in  the  greater  de- 
velopment of  the  number  concept ;  so  that  the  ideas 
which  are  needed  for  the  writing  of  an  examination 
paper  are  acquired  without  the  same  degree  of  stress 
being  laid  upon  the  teaching  of  the  subject  itself  that 
was  employed  before. 

Idea  of  Industrial  Efficiency. — Two  different  ideals 
have  been  manifested  in  the  development  of  the  cur- 
riculum of  the  schools.  One  of  these  is  the  idea  of  in- 
dustrial efficiency,  which  leads  to  the  teaching  of  those 
subjects  that  will  be  of  immediate  utility  to  the  chil- 
dren who  learn  them.  Subjects  are  introduced  into 
school  work  because  of  the  benefit  that  a  knowledge  of 
the  subjects  will  confer.  This  is  the  idea  which  un- 
derlies the  selection  of  the  subjects  of  the  common 
school  curriculum,  and  the  common  schools  are 
founded  upon  the  idea  of  industrial  efficiency.  In 
schools  established  upon  this  principle,  the  acquisition 
of  knowledge  is  the  end  of  school  education,  and  the 
teaching  is  likely  to  be  determined  by  it. 

Leisure  Class  Idea. — The  other  principle  is  that  of 
ihc    leisure    class    idea.    ■  'I'liis    nun-    ])v    most    brietlA' 


tiil:  course  of  stud^'  411 

stated  by  saying-  that  schools  founded  upon  this  prin- 
ciple are  established  particularly  to  teach  the  things 
that  a  gentleman  ought  to  know.  By  gentleman,  is 
here  meant  some  one  who  is  not  compelled  by  the  cir- 
cumstances of  the  case  to  earn  the  money  that  he 
must  live  upon,  lie  can  spend  his  time  in  occupa- 
tions that  are  not  directly  economic  in  their  product. 
There  is  little  thought  of  the  economic  value  of  sub- 
jects of  instruction  in  schools  that  are  founded  upon 
this  idea.  Mental  discipline  is  likely  to  be  the  ex- 
pressed aim  of  instruction  in  such  schools.  Subjects 
that  are  incapable  of  being  put  to  any  practical  use 
are  likely  to  be  preferred.  It  is  the  mark  of  a  leisure 
class  education  that  persons  so  taught  shall  have  a 
large  amount  of  knowledge  which  is  incapable  of  eco- 
nomic application.  Hence  it  is  that  the  classics,  Latin, 
Greek,  languages  generally,  are  favorite  subjects  in 
leisure  class  schools.  Drawing  as  an  art  is  a  leisure 
class  subject;  drawing  as  applied  to  mechanics,  archi- 
tecture, engineering,  is  a  subject  for  industrial  ef- 
ficiency. 

Colleges  Generally  Leisure  Class  Institutions.— The 
early  colleges  were  altogether  based  upon  the  leisure 
class  idea.  Higher  education  in  general  is  still  largely 
an  expression  of  it.  As  colleges  have  affected  the 
common  schools,  the  leisure  class  idea  has  been  mani- 
fested in  their  course  of  study.  As  the  common  school 
idea  has  reached  u])ward  into  the  colleges,  their  courses 
of  stud\-  ha\e  been  morlified  in  the  'lire'Mion  of  indus- 


412  PRI.N'CH'LES   OF    TEACHING 

trial  efficiency.  At  present,  the  battle  ground  of  these 
two  ideas  is  best  exemplified  in  the  high  schools.  The 
high  schools  have  grown  up  out  of  the  common 
schools,  supplanting  the  leisure  class  academies  and 
preparatory  schools.  The  colleges  have  recently  influ- 
enced the  high  schools  very  much,  and  have  embodied 
in  them  the  leisure  class  subjects.  The  opinion  is 
often  expressed  that  education  goes  from  the  top 
downward,  meaning  that  it  filters  from  the  colleges 
into  the  common  schools.  The  statement  is  not  true, 
unless  by  education  is  meant  leisure  class  education. 
Industrially  efficient  education  almost  invariably  pro- 
ceeds in  the  other  direction. 

Fads  in  School. — The  newer  subjects  that  are  in- 
troduced into  the  curriculum  are  sometimes  called 
fads.  The  name  is  never  applied  in  a  complimentary 
way,  but  is  rather  a  term  of  obloquy.  A  fad  is  some- 
thing that  is  new,  rather  unusual,  not  adopted  in  all 
the  schools,  and  pursued  with  a  considerable  degree  of 
enthusiasm.  On  the  one  hand  it  is  claimed  that  the 
introduction  of  new  subjects,  or  fads,  into  the  schools 
has  come  about  in  consequence  of  the  imperative  de- 
mand for  the  enrichment  of  the  course  of  study ;  on 
the  other  hand  it  is  claimed  that  such  introduction  has  led 
to  an  overloaded  and  indigestible  course  of  study,  de- 
structive to  efficient  teaching  or  learning,  and  in- 
jurious to  the  health  and  mental  effectiveness  of  the 
pupils.  What  is  the  explanation  of  this  discrepancy 
of  opinion? 


THE    COURSE    OF    STUDY  413 

The  Ideal  Toieard  IVhicli  the  Piiblk  School  Tends. 
— W  hcii  \vc  look  at  it  in  the  right  way,  we  shall  see 
that  we  have  been  groping  blindly  toward  a  snbhme 
ideal,  as  mueh  beyond  that  of  Thomas  Jefferson  as 
his  was  superior  to  that  of  most  of  the  peojjle  of  his 
day.  We  are  gradually  coming  to  a  realization  in 
practice  of  that  which  has  been  known  in  theory  a 
long  time.  We  are  gradually  coming  to  teach  the 
child  instead  of  the  subject.  Our  teaching  is  coming  to 
be  based  upon  child-psycholog}',  rather  than  upon 
adult  logic.  Adult  logic  has  previously  laid  out 
our  courses  of  study  and  said  how-  they  should 
be  taught.  Adult  logic  said  that  the  letter  is 
simpler  than  the  word,  and  that  we  should  pro- 
ceed from  the  simple  to  the  complex.  Therefore, 
adult  logic  said,  we  should  teach  the  letters  before  the 
words.  But  we  now  know  that  the  word  which  means 
something  to  the  child  is  simpler  for  him  than  the  let- 
ter which  means  nothing,  and  our  teaching  of  reading 
has  increased  in  effectiveness  more  than  five  hundred 
per  cent   since   we   recognized   this   fact. 

The  same  kind  of  changes  will  occur  and  are  now  in 
progress  in  the  teaching  of  arithmetic  and  of  language 
work.  Geography  has  already  undergone  a  trans- 
formation and  is  no  longer  exclusively  the  locative 
geography  of  former  days.  Physical  Geography,  once 
considered  a  high  school  subject,  is  made  the  basis  of 
the  work  in  geography  in  the  elementary  grades.  His- 
tory is  no  longer  confined  to  the  course  of  events  in 


414  l'KINCII'Ll':S   Ol'     llCACll  INC. 

ihc  United  SlaUs,  hut  our  children  learn  sonietliin;^- 
about  luiL^lisli  liisl(jry,  Roman  history,  (ireek  history, 
and  (ireek,  Roman  and  Norse  ni\thology. 

Nature  of  the  Public  School  Ideal.— The  ideal  toward 
which  we  have  been  groping  is  not  the  idea  of  in- 
dustrial efficiency,  nor  the  leisure  class  idea,  but  some- 
thing that  is  more  comprehensive  than  either.  The 
aim  is  not  knowledge  that  can  be  applied,  nor  the  fash- 
ionable knowledge  of  the  leisure  class,  nor  is  it  to  be 
determined  by  the  idea  of  mental  discipline.  The  aim 
of  mental  discipline  has  always  been  a  subterfuge  at 
best.  There  is  just  as  much  mental  discipline  possi- 
ble of  attainment  in  acquiring  knowledge  that  can  he 
applied  to  immediate  and  practical  ends,  as  in  learning 
things  that  have  n(-  possible  utilitarian  application. 

School  as  a  Preparation  for  Living. — School  is  a 
preparation  for  life.  There  is  no  possible  way  of  learn- 
ing to  live  except  by  living,  as  there  is  no  way  of 
learning  to  skate  except  by  skating.  So  in  order  that 
school  may  be  a  preparation  for  life,  it  must  be  life 
itself.  School  is  not  merely  a  preparation  for  life,  it 
is  life.  The  child  is  to  learn  to  live  in  the  community, 
and  the  school  must  represent  the  best  ideals  of  com- 
munity life  in  which  it  is  placed.  This  means  that 
the  three  R's  shall  be  taught,  and  shall  be  well  taught, 
too.  The  three  R's  constitute  an  essential  element  in 
the  life  of  every  commmiity  in  the  United  States.  It 
means  that  in  an  industrial  community  the  principle 
of  industrial  efficiency   shall   determine  the   course  of 


Till'.  coL'ksi-:  ui"  sii'iiv  41.'^ 

.>lU(Iv.  Tn  an  ai^riciiluual  coinniuniiy  Uk'  subjects 
that  maintain  a  relation  to  ai^ricuhure  >liall  constitute 
the  curriculuui.  In  a  leisure  class  connnunit}-,  the 
leisure  class  su])jects  shall  prevail. 

This  is  not  the  principle  of  electives  in  school,  but 
it  is  something  better.  The  school  will  represent  the 
community  ideal,  and  as  such  it  will  appeal  to  eveiy 
child  in  the  connnunity.  by  showing  forth  the  relation 
of  school  work  to  the  life  that  he  must  live. 

IVhat  Subjects  May  Properly  be  Introduced  into 
Sclwol. — Anything  tliat  constitutes  an  element  in  com- 
munity life,  by  that  very  fact  justifies  its  demand  for 
introduction  into  the  grades  of  the  school.  It  may  or 
mav  not  be  expedient  to  introduce  it  into  the  prograni, 
but  if  conditions  will  permit,  there  can  be  no  valid  rea- 
son for  refusing  to  consider  it  a  fit  subject  for  instruc- 
tion in  school. 

Such  conditions  afford  abundant  opportunity  for 
the  introduction  of  such  subjects,  as  manual  training 
and  domestic  science,  as  well  as  for  the  elements  of 
aericulture  and  of  phvsical  training.  ^Manual  train- 
ing,  or  construction  work,  may  be  just  as  truly  a 
leisure  class  subject  as  a  subject  for  industrial  effi- 
ciencv.  Manual  training  that  runs  to  raffia  work  and 
pyrography  is   far  removed  from  the  idea  of  industrial 

efficiency. 

Domestic  Science. — Cooking  and  housekeeping  work 
constitute  a  most  essential  element  in  the  life  of  every 
communitv,  and  domestic  science  will  in  all  reasonable 


416  PRINCIPLES   OF   TEACHING 

probability  constitute  an  ever-increasing  element  in 
the  school  curriculum.  The  objections  to  the  intro- 
duction of  domestic  science  are  not  strong.  Girls  can 
be  taught  housekeeping  at  home,  is  the  common  objec- 
tion. Very  true,  but  so  they  can  be  taught  to  read 
and  write  and  cipher  at  home;  nevertheless  it  has  been 
found  not  only  economical,  but  altogether  advantage- 
ous to  teach  the  reading  and  writing  and  ciphering  at 
schools,  where  skilled  teachers  with  proper  appliances 
can  economize  the  efforts  of  the  children. 

Coininiiiiity  Life  the  One  School  Subject. — Hence  it 
is,  too,  that,  notwithstanding  the  ever-increasing  num- 
ber of  subjects  that  make  up  the  curriculum,  the 
courses  of  study  are  not  overcrowded.  There  is  but 
one  real  subject  of  instruction,  and  that  is  community 
life.  Any  subject  that  does  not  have  a  direct  relation 
to  it  is  of  right  debarred  from  the  course ;  and  the  re- 
lation of  the  child  to  the  community  in  which  he  lives 
determines  the  course  to  be  pursued  in  his  education. 

The  Aim  Determines  the  Subjects  of  Instruction. — 
The  doctrine  of  formal  discipline  would  assert  that  it 
makes  no  difference  what  subject  is  studied,  provided 
it  is  sufficiently  difificult  and  demands  considerable 
energv.  It  does  make  a  difference  what  subjects  of  in- 
struction are  presented  to  the  child,  for  the  nature  of 
the  child  is  inevitably  determined  by  the  things  which 
he  contemplates.  "The  chameleon  of  human  thought 
takes  its  color,  day  by  day,  from  the  books  over  which 
it  crawds."     The  character  of  the  child  is  determined 


Till".    LOUKSl-:    Ol"    STUDY  417 

1)\  the  tilings  he  thinks.  So  we  ought  to  cause  him  to 
study  the  things  which  represent  the  best  ideals  of  the 
coniniunit)'.  for  by  so  doing-  we  are  ])ri'])aring  him  to 
live  in  tiiat  connnunity. 

Course  of  Study  Made  by  the  Teacher. — It  is  coui- 
monly  assumed  that  the  course  of  study  is  made  by 
the  superintendent,  or  board  of  education,  or  some 
other  constituted  authority.  The  fact  is  that  the  real 
course  of  study  can  be  made  only  by  the  teacher.  Dif- 
ferent teachers,  using  the  same  printed  course  of 
study,  and  intending  to  follow  the  same  system  of  in- 
struction, by  the  different  emphasis  which  they  give 
to  the  same  subjects  will  teach  t(^tally  dift'erent  courses 
and  produce  correspondingly  different  effects  upon  the 
minds  and  characters  of  the  children.  It  is  the  teach- 
er, who  in  the  last  analysis,  is  responsible  for  the 
course    of    study.      Hence   arises    the    necessity    for   the 

teacher's  having  a  proper  ideal  of  what  constitutes  edu- 
cation, and  how  the  subjects  of  instruction  may  be  re- 
lated to  the  life  of  the  community. 

Synopsis 

1.  There  are  two  ideas  involved  in  the  develop- 
ment of  the  common  school  curriculum  ;  the  idea  of  in- 
dustrial efficiency  and  the  leisure  class  idea. 

2.  The  elementary  schools  represent  especially 
the  idea  of  industrial  efficiency  and  the  colleges  rep- 
resent more  nearly  the  leisure  class  idea.  The  battle 
"round  at  present  i<  the  Iiigh  school. 


418  PKIXCIPLES  OF  TKAcyiixr, 

3  A  satisfact(M'A'  roncrptinn  <,i  tlu'  ]iul)lic  school 
I'lirrit'iiluin  will  iiu'lu(U'  an  idea  iiiiiir  coiii|)rehensi\c 
than  Ixiili  of  liiesc.  '\hv  C(>ni>o  i)f  slndy  nuist  he  hascd 
upon  the  idea  that  tiic  husincss  of  the  school  is  to 
teach  the  pupil  to  live  in  the  community.  Community 
life  is  the  one  idea  that  the  course  of  studv  oujjht  to 
embody. 

4.  Anything"  that  constitutes  an  element  in  the 
life  of  the  community  may,  if  conditions  arc  favora])le. 
have  its  introduction  into  the  schools  justified  by  this 
principle. 

5.  It  is  the  teacher,  rather  than  the  board  of  edu- 
cation or  the  superintendent,  who  really  makes  the 
course  of  study. 


INDEX 


Abstraction.  210,  231.   324. 

Abstract    notion,    321. 

Acts  of  judgment,  7i. 

Adenoids,  i77. 

Adjustment,  45. 

Adolescent   play,   139. 

Advantages  of   Psychology,  28. 

Agassiz,   407. 

Agriculture,  59,  408. 

Aim  of  Education,  22,  66. 

Algebra,  67. 

.Ambidexterity,  395. 

Americanization,  90. 

Analysis.  210,  232,  324. 

Antagonism      between      school 

and  life.  72,  81. 
.Apparatus,    projection,    216. 
Apperception,    33.     180. 
Apperceiving  mass,   182.   189. 
Applied  psychology,  29. 
Arabic   notation,   17. 
Archie,  375. 
Argon,  327. 
Argument  for  education.  48. 

For  common  school,  81. 

For  dramatization,   171. 
Arithmetic,   15,  35,  68. 
Arthropods,  335. 
Artist,  30. 

Artistic  accomplishment,  156. 
.Assessed   value,  53. 
Assignment,  247. 
Association,    190. 

Laws  of,  191. 
-Astigmatism.  365. 
.Attention.  ?<7. 
Atvvoods   machine.   35. 
.Austro-Hungary,  88. 

Babylon,  62. 

Backing  the  book.  2.36. 


r.ad,   imitation   of,   170. 
IJase,   of    numbers,    17. 
Behavior,  34,  273,  276,  294. 
Biogenetic    law,    100. 
Birthdays,  318. 
Blind   spot,   361. 
Born  teacher,  10. 

Musician,   11. 
Bow  and  arrow,  109. 
Brain  cells,  43. 
Brain  centers,  74. 

Chambered  nautilus,  64. 
Characteristics  of  interest.  146. 
Cheating.  293. 
Chicago  Dept.  of  Child  Study, 

353. 
Cliild  nature.  25. 

Psychology,    31. 

Study  montlily.   375. 
Chinese   invention,   163. 

Schools,  236. 
Chronoscope,   395. 
Classification,  2i2)^. 
Color  blindness.  Z72. 
College  graduate,  54. 
Colonization,  88. 
Committino-     to     memorv.     76, 

202. 
Committee  on  school   property, 

284. 
Comparison,   328,   ?i2>2. 
Comprehension    of   the   notion, 

337. 
Common    noun,    321. 

Branches,  405. 

Schools,  ^?>. 
Community  life,  7'S,,  414. 
Compulsory   education,  121. 
Competitive  play.  138. 
Concert    recitation.  251. 


tin 


420 


INDEX 


Concept,   321. 

Consciousness  is  motor.  225. 

Construction  work,  222. 

Contiguity,   191. 

Contagious    diseases.    399. 

Content  of  common  noun,  329. 

Co-operative  play,   137. 

Correlation,   211. 

Conversion.    183. 

Corollaries,    41. 

Cost    of   living,    52. 

Course  of  study,  42,  401. 

Courage.  293. 

Critic,   328. 

Cramming,  268. 

Creation,    163. 

Criminal    instincts,   32,   86. 

Cultivation  of  the  will,  144. 

Culture.    75. 

Epochs,    100,    113. 
Cultivation   of  plants,   110. 
Curiosity.    152. 
Curriculum.  403. 

Darwin,  407. 
Defective  vision,  360. 

Hearing.  374. 
Definition  of  play,  124. 

Of  education,  46. 

Logical,   333. 
Degeneration.   292. 
Denominate   numbers.   59. 
Departmental   teaching,  298. 
Deportment  mark,  303. 
Desks.  398. 

Despotic  government.  84. 
Development.    44. 

Recitation,   259. 

Retarded.  26. 

Stages.   32.    100. 
Devices,  34. 

For  study.  205. 
Division  of  the  school  fund,  95. 
Diplomas,  310. 
Discipline,  formal,  189. 

School,  271. 
Disease,    399. 
Discrimination,   326. 
Domestic  science,  415. 


Double  taxation,  97. 
Dramatization,    171. 
Drawing.  76,  221. 
Drill,  246. 

Ear-minded  persons,  259. 
Earning  power.  52,  57. 
Education,    40.    46. 
Elements     of     agriculture,     60, 

408. 
Of  the  recitation,  237. 
Electives,  415. 
Emulation,  316. 
Endowment  fund,  403. 
English   political    institutions. 

88. 
System  of  play.  282. 
Environment,  40. 
Equilibrium  plays,  132. 
Ergograph.  .387. 
Esthesiometer,  385. 
Ethical  atmosphere,  277,  290, 

295. 
Examinations,   266. 
Exercise,    385. 
Explain,  33,  207. 
Expression.  221. 
Extension  of  the  notion.  337. 
Eye  minded  persons,  259. 

Fads.  412. 

Failure   in   discipline.  272. 
Faint    sensations.    322. 
Falling  bodies,  35. 
Farmers'  institute,  50. 
Fatigue,   382. 

Toxin.    383. 

Of  a  school  day.  388. 
Fears,  25. 
Feeling  play.  136. 
Feeling   and    fatigue.    389. 
Fighting   play.    137. 
First  hand  knowledge.  208. 
Focus  of  consciousness,   181. 
Forgetting,    14.  244. 
Formal  discipline,   189,  414. 
Fraction,  15. 

Gambling.  294. 

General   abstract   notion.  321. 


INDliX 


421 


German  sj'stcm  of  play.  282. 

Geyser,    331. 

Godless  schools.  92. 

Goody-good,   7i>. 

Grammar,    18. 

Grammalical    di>tincti(m,    19. 

Grasshopper,  323. 

Great  Stone   l-'acc,   177. 

Groos,    126. 

Groos's  theory  of  plav,  127. 

Growth,  100.  344. 

Tables  of,  346,  347. 

Periods  of.  349. 

Proportional,   351. 

And   school    standing,   353. 

Habit,  8,  33.  144.  305. 
Hearing.  374. 

Test.  378. 

Play,   134. 
Heredity,  40. 
Herbart,    180. 
High  schools,  407. 
History,  20. 
Homogeneity,  88,  91. 
Hypermetropia,  364. 

Ideas.    180.    185. 
Illiteracy.    85. 
Imagination   play,   136. 
Imitation,  161. 
Imitative  actions,    166. 

Play,  134. 

Teaching,  169. 
Immigration,  89. 
Impulse,   peripherally    initiated, 

322. 
Incentives,   305. 

Industrial  efficiency.  57,  87,  406. 
Infactions   of  discipline,   278. 
Infant  play,  137. 
Instincts,   25. 
Institutions.  42. 
Institutional    life.    79. 
Instruction,  240. 
Interest,  .33,   142.  301. 

Defined.  147. 

People.  142. 
Interests,   148. 


Intt.lligence,   84. 
intelK'Ctu.iI   feeling,  .307. 
Investment.    ii4. 
invention,    162. 
Isolation  of  nfftiHUT,  298. 

John    Worthy    ."chool,    354. 
Judgment,   19. 

Key,   68. 

King  John,  62. 

Knowledge,  14,  26. 

Aim,  67. 

Professional,  9,  14,  15,  25. 

Latin,  67. 

Laws    of   association,    191. 

Lazarus,  127. 

Learning,  37. 

By  heart,  202. 
Lecture   recitation,  258. 
Left  handedness.   390. 
Leisure  class.  57.  75.  410. 
Lewis   H.   Alorgan,   10(). 
Limits,   61. 

Lighting,    370.  •  ><^ 

Localization   of   function.   75. 
Logical  definition.  232,  333. 
Lord  Rayliegh,  327. 
Love   plav.    140. 
Lying,  292. 

Marking  system,  310. 
Marriage,  95. 
Man,   primitive.    114,    128. 
Maximum    height    and    weight, 

358. 
Mayflower,    20. 
.Mental   processes,  36. 

Discipline,  70.  198. 

Play,   136. 

Location,  221. 
Measurement  of  fatigue.  .385. 
Memory.    70. 
Method.    12. 

Of    thought,    36. 
Monitor,  331. 
Moral  aim,  76. 
Morality.  77. 


422 


INDEX 


^Movement  play,    132. 
Musician,   born.    11. 
Muscle  play,   132. 
Alyopia,   363. 

Nature   study,  408. 

Nervous  arc,  44. 

Nervous  prostration,  396. 

Nervousness,  395. 

Neurons,  43. 

Nile,   62. 

Northvi^est  territory,  402. 

Notion,    general    abstract,    321. 

Singular  concrete,  330. 
Noun,  connnon,  321. 

Proper.  321. 

Objections    to    schools,   48,   92. 
Ontogenetic  series,  105. 
Origin  of  language,  107. 
Origin   of   Species,  407. 
Oral   reading,  222. 
Originalitv,    166. 
Ordinance    of    1787,   402. 
Overwork,   397. 
Overflow,  nervous,  326. 

Parochial  schools,  83. 
Pauperism.   87. 
Pedagogical  content,  24. 
Periods  of  racial  development, 
106. 

of  childhood,  117. 

of  growth,  348. 
Peripherallx     initialed    impulse, 

322. 
Phonetic  alpiiaix't.   116. 
Picture  stndv.  213. 
Pilgrims.   20;  88. 
Place,  value.  17. 
Play,  25.  ^3.  123. 

And    work,    124. 
Plays   of   animals.    126. 
Playground,  282. 
Plasticity    of    nervous    or,gani- 

zation,    116. 
Pony,  67,   293. 
Poor  spellintr.  360, 
Posture,    398. 


Powers  of  the  mind,  71. 
Professional  knowledge,  19. 

Training,   13. 

Work,   30. 
Practical   subjects,   72. 
Predicate,    18. 

Pray'a  astigmatic  letters,  368. 
Preparation   for  life,  414. 
Precocity,  355. 
Primary  teaching,   1()9. 
Primitive  man,   114,   128. 
Prison    statistics,   85. 
Prize   fighting,   139. 
Prizes.    309. 
Private  schools,  82. 
Program.  306. 
Projection    apparatus.    216. 
Prolongation  of  infancy.  121. 
Promotions,  310,  313. 
Proportional  growth.  351. 
Physician,  preparation,  12. 
Phylogenetic   series.   102. 
Public  opinion.  296. 
Punishment,    238,    297. 
Pupil  government,  317. 
Puzzles,  247. 
Psychologv.  28. 

Of  expression,  224. 
Pyramids,  62. 

Quantity  of  life,  62. 
Questioning,  229. 
Question  and  answer,  261. 

Race  inheritance,  64,  80. 
Ragweed,  211. 
Reaction    time,    385. 
Reading,    definition.    194. 
Reading  or  study,  200. 
Recidivists,  86. 
Recitation,  235.  251. 

Topical,    264. 
Reflex  action,   165. 
Reflex  imitation,   164. 
Relation.    190. 
Relation    of   growth    to    school 

standing.   353. 
Relativitv.   190. 
Religion,  91,  93. 


INDEX 


423 


Remembering.   37.   201. 
Kcportiiif^,  241. 
I^esemljjance,   19.1,  32*). 
Retarded   devejippmenl.  2o. 
Review,  243. 
Koman  notation.    17. 
Rules  in  arithmetic,  69. 
Runnymede.  62. 

Salarj%  56. 

Schaeffer.  Snpt..  64. 

School  as  community  ideal,  42. 

Discipline,    271. 

Standing  and  growth,  353. 
Self  activity,   123. 
Sense  plays,   129. 
Sensation,  321. 

Seven  common  branches.  405. 
Sight  play,  133. 

Simultaneous    association,    185. 
Sixteenth  section,  403. 
Slavery,    84. 

Snellen's  test  cards,  365. 
Social  efficiency,  23. 
Spencer,    79. 

Theory  of  play.    125. 
Spontaneous  attention.  200. 
Special    days,    318. 
Spelling,  poor,  360. 
Speech  center,  391. 
Springfield  examinations,  409. 
Stealing,  292. 
Stanley    Hall,    theorv    of   plav. 

127. 
Stages  of  development,  32. 
Study,    197. 
Stupidity.  375. 
■Subject  of  sentence.   18. 
Suggestion,  276. 

Tables  of  growth,  346.  347. 

Of  differences,  326,  335. 

Of  resemblances,  329.  335. 
Taxonomic  series.  100. 
Taste  plays.    131. 
Tardiness,  317. 
Teacher,  born.  10. 
Teaching.  218. 


Technical    -iliodls,   57. 

Temperature  plays,   130. 

Team  plays,   1.19. 

'Jelling.   218. 

Testing,  237. 

Text  books,  240. 

Tfext   book   recitation,   254. 

Test  for  nervousness.  395. 

Thinking.  32,  206. 

Threshold   of  consciousness, 

180. 
Theorv   of   discipline.    274. 

Of  play,  123. 

Spencer's,   125. 

Pi  airs.    127. 

Groos',  126. 
Three  R's,  404. 
Touch  plays,  130. 
Thomas    Jefferson.    400. 
Training,  professional,    13. 
Transfer  of  interest,  302.  .105. 
Turkish   cadi,   letter.   152. 

Understand,  33. 
Unconscious   imitation.    176. 
Uneducated,    successful    man, 

58. 
Unitv,  class,  227. 
Of  the  school,  285.  297. 

Value  of  ihe  teacher.  56. 

Ventilation,  399. 

Von  Baer.  100. 

Vision,  360. 

V\tn\  capacity,  384. 

Watch  test.  378. 

Whisper  test,  380. 

Will,  14.1. 

Will  i)lav,   136. 

Will  people.   143. 

Window  shades,  371. 

Weight   of   children,  347. 

Work.   124. 

Worry.  396. 

Worth  of  a  man,  51. 

Ziller,   106. 


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